THOMPSON RIVERS UNIVERSITY

Ethical Leadership Paradigms among Indian Immigrant
Professionals in Canada and Their Counterparts in India:
The Effects of Acculturation

by
Rumana InayatHusen Patel

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
Master of Education
KAMLOOPS, BRITISH COLUMBIA
August 22, 2025

Supervisor: Dr. Alana Hoare
Co-Supervisor: Dr. Tanya Manning-Lewis
Internal Examiner: Dr. Christie Fraser
External Examiner: Dr. Tatiana Gounko

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Acknowledgements
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to those who have supported and guided
me throughout this research journey.
First, my deepest thanks to my supervisor, Dr. Alana Hoare, for inspiring this research
and for your unwavering belief in me. Your support, encouragement, and consistent push to
expand my limits have shaped both this project and my growth as a researcher. To my cosupervisor, Dr. Tanya Manning Lewis, thank you for your continuous support and guidance.
Your kindness, wisdom, and belief in my abilities have been deeply motivating and
reassuring throughout this process. To my internal examiner, Dr. Christie Fraser, thank you
for your time, thoughtful feedback, and for sharing your unique perspective and expertise.
Your input has been invaluable in refining this work. To my external examiner, Dr. Tatiana
Gounko, thank you for your generous time, deep knowledge, and insightful guidance. Your
expertise helped shape this project in essential ways. To Dr. Gloria Ramirez, thank you for
donating your time so generously. Your contribution and support have been truly appreciated.
A special thanks to my friend and colleague, Dr. Olubukola Bosede Osuntade, for
being a constant source of encouragement. Your belief in me and your commitment to
meaningful research continue to inspire me. To my parents, thank you for your unwavering
emotional and financial support. Your faith in me and your encouragement to pursue my
dreams have made this journey possible. Lastly, to my partner, thank you for your enduring
love and support. Your presence, encouragement, and belief in me, especially during times of
self doubt, have meant the world to me.

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Dedication
This thesis is dedicated to Dr. Alana Hoare, my guide and supervisor, who has left a lasting
impact on both my life and my research journey. Your kindness, compassion, and
unwavering support have shaped this work and inspired me deeply. I am forever grateful.

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Table of Contents
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................. 7
1.1 Justification of the Study ................................................................................................ 13
1.2 Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 15
1.2.1 General Objective .................................................................................................... 15
1.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 16
1.4 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................. 17
1.4.1 Acculturation Theory ............................................................................................... 17
1.4.2. Multiple Ethical Paradigms .................................................................................... 19
1.5 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 20
Chapter 2: Literature Review ................................................................................................... 21
2.1 Defining Ethics and Ethical Leadership ......................................................................... 21
2.2 Ethical Leadership in the Context of India..................................................................... 24
2.1.1 Ethical Leadership in Ancient India Thought and Traditions .................................. 25
2.1.2 Contemporary Perspectives on Ethical Leadership in India .................................... 29
2.3 Ethical Leadership in the Context of Canada ................................................................. 32
2.2.1 Indigenous Peoples Perspectives ............................................................................. 32
2.2.2 Contemporary Perspectives on Ethical Leadership in Canada ................................ 37
2.4 Acculturation .................................................................................................................. 40
2.5 Multiple Ethical Paradigms ............................................................................................ 42
2.5.1 Bird’s Eye View Model ........................................................................................... 42
2.3 Research Gap and Study’s Approach ............................................................................. 56
Chapter 3: Methodology .......................................................................................................... 59
3.1 Positionality: Self as Researcher .................................................................................... 59

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3.2 Qualitative Research Methodology ................................................................................ 61
3.2.1 Theoretical Framework............................................................................................ 61
3.2.2 Semi Structured Interview ....................................................................................... 67
3.2.3 Data Collection and Analysis .................................................................................. 74
3.3 Ethics Approval .............................................................................................................. 77
Chapter 4: Findings .................................................................................................................. 78
4.1 Summary of Ethical Paradigms Across Cohorts ............................................................ 78
4.2 Ethic of Justice: India-Based Cohort .............................................................................. 84
4.3 Ethic of Justice: Canada-Based Cohort .......................................................................... 96
4.4 Ethic of Critique: India-Based Cohort ......................................................................... 102
4.5 Ethic of Critique: Canada-Based Cohort ...................................................................... 109
4.6 Ethic of Care: India-Based Cohort ............................................................................... 112
4.7 Ethic of Care: Canada-Based Cohort ........................................................................... 119
4.8 Ethic of Community: India-Based Cohort ................................................................... 127
4.9 Ethic of Community: Canada-Based Cohort ................................................................ 132
4.10 Ethic of Self-Care: India-Based Cohort ..................................................................... 138
4.11 Ethic of Self-Care: Canada-Based Cohort.................................................................. 140
4.12 Ethic of Profession: India-Based Cohort .................................................................... 142
4.13 Ethic of Profession Canada-Based Cohort ................................................................. 144
Chapter 5: Discussion ............................................................................................................ 148
5.1 Comparison of Ethical Paradigms Through the Lens of Acculturation ....................... 149
5.1.1 Comparison: Ethic of Justice ................................................................................. 149
5.1.2 Comparison: Ethic of Critique............................................................................... 151
5.1.3 Comparison: Ethic of Care .................................................................................... 152
5.1.4 Comparison: Ethic of Community......................................................................... 153

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5.1.5 Comparison: Ethic of Profession ........................................................................... 155
5.1.6 Comparison: Ethic of Self-Care ............................................................................ 156
5.2 Evidence of Multiple Ethical Paradigms and Application of Bird’s Eye View Model 157
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 162
References .............................................................................................................................. 164
Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 183

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Abstract
This study explores the ethical leadership paradigms of Indian immigrant professionals in
Canada and compares them with their counterparts in India, with a particular focus on the
impact of acculturation. Drawing on acculturation theory and the recently conceptualized
Bird’s Eye View Model of leadership ethics, this research investigates how Indian immigrant
leaders adapt their ethical beliefs and practices in response to the Canadian cultural
environment. The study employs a qualitative research design, incorporating in-depth
interviews and reflective dialogue with Indian leaders in both countries to examine their
ethical values, decision-making frameworks, and leadership practices. Key findings reveal
that Indian immigrant leaders often experience shifts in their ethical approaches, blending
traditional Indian values with Canadian cultural norms to navigate leadership challenges.
Notably, participants retained core values such as collectivism, respect for authority, and
community-centric ethics while integrating Western ideas emphasizing individual autonomy
and organizational transparency. This adaptation highlights the dynamic nature of ethical
leadership in multicultural settings. This study offers a valuable contribution to cross-cultural
leadership research, emphasizing the need for inclusive leadership frameworks that
acknowledge diverse cultural influences. Practical implications include guidance for
immigrant leaders seeking to balance cultural retention and adaptation, as well as strategies
for Canadian organizations to foster inclusive leadership practices. Ultimately, this research
underscores the importance of cultural awareness in ethical leadership development and
supports broader efforts to promote equity, diversity, and inclusion in global professional
environments.
Keywords: leadership ethics, acculturation, multi-paradigms, qualitative research

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Chapter 1: Introduction
My journey into the study of ethical leadership began through my involvement in a
research project, where I contributed to the development of Ethical Educational Leadership:
Untangling Ethical Dilemmas and Imagining Alternative Futures (Hoare et al., 2024), an
open educational resource published by TRU Open Press. This experience not only enhanced
my understanding of ethical leadership in higher education but also revealed significant gaps
in the existing literature on the topic. One of the most critical issues identified in current
research on leadership, particularly ethical leadership, is its predominant focus on Western
perspectives. Most prevailing leadership theories and the empirical evidence supporting them
are deeply rooted in American and European contexts (e.g., Ly, 2020; Resick et al., 2006).
These theories often emphasize individualistic, hedonistic, and rational values, which stand in
stark contrast to the collectivist, altruistic, and religious values prominent in many nonWestern cultures (Ly, 2020). Consequently, these Western-centric frameworks may not fully
capture or account for the ethical constructs that are integral to non-Western societies, such as
those grounded in Confucian, Islamic, or other Indigenous peoples’ traditions (Resick et al.,
2006).
Moreover, recent scholars have begun to critique the "whiteness" entrenched within
leadership theory, pointing out that much of the literature is generalizing from white, Western
standpoints while presenting them as race-neutral norms (Liu, 2017). This exclusionary
approach reinforces the symbolic ideal of leadership from a Western, predominantly white
perspective, ignoring the diversity of racial and cultural leadership norms present globally.
Furthermore, studies on workplace leadership, such as Ahmad's (2018) exploration of
leadership's role in mitigating workplace bullying, have similarly been constrained by a
predominantly Western lens. The lack of research into how ethical leadership operates in
non-Western contexts, particularly in Eastern countries like India and Pakistan, highlights a

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need for cross-cultural investigations that examine leadership effectiveness across diverse
settings. Finally, while some research has touched upon leadership ethics in non-Western
contexts, these efforts often remain limited in scope. Eisenbeiß (2014) noted that much of the
existing literature on ethical leadership tends to focus on compliance-driven models within
the private sector, primarily in Western societies. This focus has led to limited examination of
ethical leadership within culturally diverse or Eastern contexts. Similarly, Zhang et al. (2022)
emphasize the critical need for cross-cultural studies to address the nuances of ethical
leadership across diverse contexts. They argue that existing research may overlook unique
ethical challenges faced by leaders in non-Western contexts, underscoring the importance of
broadening leadership frameworks to include perspectives beyond Western norms.
The absence of Eastern viewpoints in the discourse on ethical leadership became
increasingly evident to me as I reviewed the literature, prompting a deeper exploration of
leadership through the lens of India. This next step in my research was inspired by collective
reflection and dialogue, a critical component of community-driven methodologies,
particularly in community-based participatory research (CBPR) and participatory action
research (PAR) (Wallerstein, 2021). Collective reflection and dialogue involves sustained,
iterative conversations among research team members and community partners (Wallerstein,
2021). These conversations encourage the sharing of experiences, identities, and perspectives,
creating an environment of trust and mutual respect where all voices are valued equally.
Through collective reflection, participants engage in self-reflexivity, openly acknowledging
and addressing any power dynamics that may exist between academic researchers and
community members. This approach is crucial for building authentic partnerships, as it allows
for a more equitable distribution of influence, ensuring that research outcomes remain
community-cantered and collaboratively shaped (Muhammad et al., 2015; Wallerstein, 2021).
Engaging in open dialogue further strengthens trust among participants; when community

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members feel heard and valued, relationships deepen, fostering ongoing collaboration. This
trust is foundational for effective community engagement and sustainable partnership
(Wallerstein, 2021). For me, embracing this participatory approach was not just a
methodological choice; it became a personal commitment to ensuring that my research
remained collaborative, reflective, and grounded in the diverse voices and lived experiences
of the community I was working with.
As an international student, my quest to define my research focus began informally,
through conversations with fellow international students in leadership positions at my
Canadian university. Over time, these discussions expanded to include a wider group of
international students, regardless of their roles or positions within the university, allowing for
a more comprehensive understanding of the topics and questions relevant to the broader
international student community. In these discussions, we explored numerous aspects of
leadership, ranging from ethics and leadership styles to the impact of leadership roles,
challenges, and opportunities. Although there was no consensus on a single aspect of
leadership, the intercultural dimensions of leadership emerged consistently as a central
theme. This recurring theme became the focal point of my research.
My personal experiences have played a crucial role in shaping my research interests. I
was born in the small village of Karmad, located near the Narmada River in Gujarat, India,
and my early life was heavily influenced by the traditions and values of this close-knit rural
community. Later, my family moved to the nearby city of Surat, where many people from our
village had also relocated in search of better educational and job opportunities. This
proximity allowed us to quickly find a familiar community within the city, helping me stay
connected to my village’s cultural and religious values, which continued to shape my
worldview and my approach to leadership. Throughout my life, these values have been
fundamental to my community-driven leadership style, which often contrasts with the

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individualistic and secular norms I encountered in Western contexts. However, when I moved
to Canada, specifically to the small town of Kamloops, I experienced a cultural shift that
made me more aware of the influence my Indian upbringing had on my perceptions of
leadership and cultural identity. In India, each city, town, and even village has unique cultural
markers that are vividly reflected in daily life, from the types of restaurants and local cuisine
to clothing styles and community practices. For instance, my birthplace, a small village, had a
close-knit, community-oriented lifestyle. In major village decisions, the village head would
consult the elders, reflecting a deeply communal approach. The cuisine was simple,
carbohydrate- and protein-rich, and focused on staple foods, as most people were part of a
hardworking farming community. Festivals were celebrated in a modest way, emphasizing
tradition over grandeur.
In contrast, the nearby city my family moved to later was more urban and businessoriented. Here, people were accustomed to working independently, often with a laid-back
approach to life. This cultural difference was also visible in the cuisine, which featured a
variety of dishes and a strong emphasis on desserts, side dishes, and quick snacks suitable for
a lifestyle involving frequent travel for business. Festivals were celebrated on a larger scale,
with more diversity and fanfare, and leadership was generally more output-focused, less
involved in the community, and more individualistic in nature.
When I arrived in Kamloops, however, I was struck by the lack of an immediately
recognizable local cultural identity. Most restaurants featured international cuisines such as
Indian, Japanese, Mexican, and Middle Eastern with very few showcasing Indigenous or
distinctly Canadian dishes. Grocery stores and shopping malls felt generic, without the
unique regional products or styles I was accustomed to in India. It was unsettling to be in an
environment where cultural markers were less obvious or rooted in tradition. I felt as though I
was navigating a landscape less grounded in a specific heritage, making it difficult to find

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familiar reference points or understand what was uniquely "Kamloops." This experience
underscored how profoundly culture shapes not only personal identity but also leadership
perceptions, as I found myself searching for ways to connect with an unfamiliar cultural
landscape.
Motivated by my personal experiences and the insights gained from my interactions
with international students, I began a focused literature search at the intersection of culture
and leadership, particularly within the context of the international student community and
immigrants in Canada. Coming from India and experiencing the cultural shift in Canada
firsthand, I felt a strong need to understand how different cultural backgrounds shape
perceptions and practices of leadership. The importance of this research lies in the fact that,
while immigration continues to shape Canada’s social and professional landscape, relatively
little research has been conducted on how immigrants from non-Western countries adapt their
leadership styles in a Canadian context. This is especially significant for understanding the
unique challenges and perspectives of immigrant professionals who navigate distinct cultural
norms and expectations.
During my literature search, I encountered a pivotal study by Liang et al. (2019) that
directly informed my research direction. This study examines the implicit leadership theories
of Chinese professionals in Australia and China, focusing on how acculturation influences
leadership perceptions. The study’s emphasis on leadership from a follower’s perspective
provided valuable insights into the role of acculturation in leadership dynamics, highlighting
how cultural adaptation can reshape leadership styles and expectations. This approach
underscores the relevance of exploring similar dynamics among Indian immigrant
professionals in Canada, whose cultural background and experiences with acculturation may
also shape distinct perceptions of leadership. By building on this understudied area, my
research aims to contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of how cultural

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adaptation affects leadership practices, specifically among Indian immigrants in Canada.
Inspired by the work of Liang et al. (2019), I decided to adapt the study’s framework to
explore leadership ethics from a leader’s perspective, comparing the experiences of Indian
leaders in India with those who have immigrated to Canada. This exploration aims to bring an
Eastern perspective to the discourse on ethical leadership, addressing the existing gap in the
literature and providing a more comprehensive understanding of how cultural backgrounds
influence leadership practices.
This study aims to explore and compare the ethical leadership paradigms of Indian
professionals in leadership positions in India with those of Indian immigrant leaders in
Canada, focusing specifically on how acculturation, which is the process through which
individuals or groups adapt to a new culture after prolonged contact and often involves
changes in beliefs, behaviours, and identity while balancing elements of their original culture,
influences their ethical beliefs and practices (Sam, & Berry, 2010). As globalization
continues to accelerate, the movement of professionals across borders raises important
questions about how cultural contexts shape leadership ethics (Bhal & Debnath, 2006; Baker,
2017). Canada, a major destination for immigrants, welcomed approximately 437,180 new
permanent residents in 2022, with India being the top contributor, accounting for 118,095 of
these new arrivals (Immigration, Refugees, and Citizenship Canada, 2022; Singer, 2023).
This influx highlights the significant role Indian immigrants play in Canada’s professional
and social landscape. Given that 364,166 permanent residents became Canadian citizens in
2022 to 2023 (Statista Research Department, 2024), understanding how these individuals
adapt to Canadian leadership norms is crucial for fostering effective and inclusive leadership
in diverse settings.
Despite the growing presence of Indian professionals in Canada, much of the existing
literature on ethical leadership remains predominantly Western-centric. This leaves a

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significant gap in understanding how Eastern perspectives, particularly those from India,
adapt and evolve in a new cultural environment. This study builds on the foundational work
of Liang et al. (2019), which explored the impact of acculturation on implicit leadership
theories from a follower’s perspective by comparing Chinese immigrant professionals in
Australia with their counterparts in China who have not undergone acculturation. By shifting
the focus to leadership ethics from a leader’s perspective, this research will investigate
whether, and how, the ethical beliefs of Indian immigrant leaders in Canada differ from those
of their counterparts in India. Through qualitative research, this study aims to provide a
nuanced understanding of the cultural dynamics influencing leadership ethics, offering
valuable insights for both academic literature and practical leadership development across
multicultural contexts.
1.1 Justification of the Study
This study is essential for several reasons. Firstly, it will provide crucial insights into
how cultural contexts shape ethical leadership, a key factor for organizations striving to foster
inclusive and effective leadership across diverse backgrounds. As of 2023, approximately
eight million immigrants reside in Canada, representing over 21% of the total population
(Statista Research Department, 2024). Among these, Indian immigrants form the largest
group, contributing significantly to the country’s economic and social fabric (Singer, 2023).
This demographic shift underscores the need for research exploring how immigrant leaders
adapt their ethical beliefs and practices within a new cultural environment. A recent study
revealed that 63% of African and Asian immigrant men serve on boards of directors,
comparable to 65% for Canadian-born men; while 45% of immigrant men hold officer
positions, compared to 36% of their Canadian-born counterparts. Moreover, immigrant men
have higher participation rates in top decision-making roles (63% versus 59%) (LongpréVerret & McKee, 2022). In this study, "immigrant" refers specifically to individuals who

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were born outside of Canada and later relocated to Canada, distinguishing them from those
who are Canadian-born, including descendants of earlier generations of immigrants. These
statistics illustrate the increasing prominence of recent immigrant leaders in Canada, further
emphasizing the relevance of this study.
Secondly, findings from the current research can offer practical benefits to immigrant
leaders in Canada by helping them navigate cultural differences more effectively, thus
enhancing their leadership performance and career success. According to Lia et al. (2017),
immigrant professionals often struggle to adapt to the cultural norms and expectations of
Canadian workplaces, which can differ significantly from those in their home countries.
These challenges include understanding unwritten rules and workplace etiquette. By
examining the acculturation process and its impact on ethical leadership paradigms, this study
will provide valuable guidance for immigrant leaders striving to reconcile their cultural
heritage with the expectations of Canadian leadership norms. In addition, domestic leaders
and organizations can benefit from these findings by better understanding how to support
immigrant leaders, fostering a more inclusive and effective workplace environment.
Furthermore, this study will make a significant contribution to academic literature by
addressing a gap in existing research, which is predominantly centred on Western
perspectives of leadership ethics (Hoare et al., 2024; Liu, 2017; Ly, 2020; Resick et al.,
2006). To date, few if any published studies specifically examine how the acculturation
process impacts the ethical leadership perceptions of Indian immigrants, highlighting this
research as a novel and valuable contribution to the field. The insights gained could inform
leadership development programs and organizational policies, supporting the growth of
diverse and culturally aware leadership within Canadian organizations. Moreover, the
research could offer practical guidelines for organizations with diverse workforces, helping

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them create inclusive environments that integrate and respect different ethical perspectives,
ultimately leading to more harmonious and effective workplaces.
In conclusion, this project aims to bridge cultural gaps in leadership practices,
promoting a deeper understanding of how ethical leadership is shaped by cultural influences
and evolves in new cultural contexts. By addressing these issues, the study not only
contributes to academic knowledge but also has the potential to support equity, inclusion, and
diversity goals within organizations.
1.2 Objectives
The objectives of this study are structured to comprehensively explore how
acculturation influences ethical leadership among Indian professionals in two distinct
contexts: India and Canada. The general objective provides an overarching aim for the
research, while the specific objectives outline targeted areas of investigation that will offer
deeper insights into the ethical beliefs and practices shaped by cultural adaptation.
1.2.1 General Objective
The general objective of this study is to explore and compare the ethical leadership
paradigms of Indian professionals in India with those of Indian immigrant leaders in Canada,
focusing on the impact of acculturation on their leadership ethics.
1.2.2 Specific Objectives
1. To identify and analyse the core ethical principles and practices valued by leaders in
India, thereby understanding the foundational aspects of ethical leadership in an
Indian cultural context.
2. To investigate the perceptions of ethical leadership among Indian immigrant leaders
in Canada and assess whether their ethical views and practices have shifted or adapted
because of integrating into the Canadian cultural environment.

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3. To compare the ethical leadership paradigms between Indian leaders in India and
Indian immigrant leaders in Canada, examining the nuances in the adaptation of
ethical perspectives and practices resulting from the acculturation process.
These objectives are designed to provide a richer, more contextualized understanding of how
cultural and environmental factors influence ethical leadership, contributing to both academic
literature and practical applications in leadership development across multicultural contexts.
1.3 Research Questions
To thoroughly explore the impact of acculturation on ethical leadership paradigms,
this study will address several key research questions. These questions are designed to
examine the ethical beliefs and practices of Indian leaders in India and Indian immigrant
leaders in Canada, with a focus on how acculturation influences their leadership approaches.
By exploring these areas, the study aims to uncover both the differences and similarities in
ethical leadership between the two groups and how their perspectives transform within
different cultural contexts.
1. What core ethical principles and practices are valued by leaders in India?
2. How do Indian immigrant leaders in Canada perceive and practice ethical leadership?
3. How have the ethical views and practices of Indian immigrant leaders in Canada
changed as a result of adapting to the Canadian cultural environment?
4. What are the key similarities and differences in the ethical leadership paradigms
between Indian leaders in India and Indian immigrant leaders in Canada?
Each research question is directly aligned with a corresponding research objective. Research
Question 1 addresses Specific Objective 1 by identifying and analysing the core ethical
principles valued by leaders in India. Research Questions 2 and 3 respond to Specific
Objective 2 by exploring how Indian immigrant leaders in Canada perceive and practice
ethical leadership, and whether their ethical views shift through cultural adaptation. Finally,

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Research Question 4 addresses Specific Objective 3 by comparing ethical leadership
paradigms between leaders in India and Indian immigrant leaders in Canada, highlighting
nuances influenced by acculturation.
1.4 Theoretical Framework
This study employs acculturation theory and multiple ethical paradigms as its
theoretical framework to explore how Indian immigrant leaders in Canada adjust to a new
cultural environment and how this adaptation influences their ethical leadership practices.
1.4.1 Acculturation Theory
Acculturation refers to the process through which individuals or groups adjust to a
new cultural context by adopting certain cultural elements while maintaining aspects of their
original culture (Barker, 2017). In this study, acculturation theory is used to examine how
Indian immigrant leaders in Canada adapt their ethical beliefs and practices in response to the
Canadian cultural environment, comparing them to Indian leaders in India. Acculturation
theory has evolved significantly since its early usage by John Wesley Powell in 1880, who
described the cultural changes that occur when different societies come into contact (Berry,
2017; Powell, 1880; Rudmin, 2003). The concept was further developed by Redfield et al.
(1936), who defined acculturation as the process of cultural change resulting from direct
contact between different cultures. Their "Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation"
(Redfield et al., 1936) provided a foundational framework for understanding the complexities
of cultural adaptation, distinguishing acculturation from related concepts like assimilation,
which refers to when individuals or groups fully adopt the practices of the dominant culture
and abandon their original cultural identity (Milton, 1964), and diffusion, which refers to the
spread of cultural elements from one culture to another, often through indirect means, rather
than direct contact (Kroeber & Kluckhohn, 1952).

18
This study applies acculturation theory to explore the cultural adaptation processes
experienced by Indian immigrant leaders, particularly focusing on how their ethical beliefs
and practices shift as they engage with Canadian culture. By examining the ethical leadership
paradigms of Indian leaders in India and comparing them with those of Indian immigrant
leaders in Canada, the study will assess how the acculturation process influences leadership
ethics in a cross-cultural context. Key aspects of the Redfield et al. (1936) framework that are
relevant to this research include:
1. Direct Cultural Contact: This study focuses on Indian immigrant leaders who have
experienced direct, sustained contact with Canadian culture, exploring how this
interaction has influenced their leadership practices. Through interviews, participants
shared their experiences of adapting to Canadian cultural norms and expectations,
allowing for a deeper understanding of the acculturation process in leadership
contexts.
2. Cultural Retention and Adaptation: Acculturation theory helps examine which
elements of Indian ethical leadership are retained and which are adapted or modified
in the new cultural environment. This research analysed how Indian immigrant
leaders balanced their original cultural values with the ethical expectations of their
host country.
3. Bidirectional Cultural Influence: Although Redfield et al. (1936) emphasized the
mutual influence between interacting cultures, this study primarily focused on how
Indian immigrant leaders adapted to Canadian culture, while acknowledging that
some aspects of Indian culture may also influence the Canadian leadership landscape
(Berry, 2017).
By using this theoretical lens, the study seeks to identify the specific cultural elements that
shape ethical leadership during the acculturation process. This analysis will highlight how

19
Indian immigrant leaders negotiate their ethical beliefs and leadership styles as they adapt to
Canadian cultural norms, thereby providing insights into the dynamic nature of ethical
leadership in multicultural settings.
1.4.2. Multiple Ethical Paradigms
The second framework guiding this research is the Multiple Ethical Paradigms
framework. This framework, originally developed through the work of various scholars (e.g.,
Chryssides & Kaler, 1996; Engsjö-Lindgren, 2021; Nevarez & Wood, 2014; Shapiro &
Stefkovich, 2016), has been extended and contextualized by Hoare et al. (2024) for leadership
in higher education. In this study, I adopt Hoare et al.'s (2024) adapted version, applying it to
leadership in a broader, cross-cultural context. The concept of multiple ethical paradigms has
been used in various leadership settings, including corporate, business, healthcare, and other
formal organizations (Engsjö-Lindgren, 2021; Jamal & Camargo, 2014; Linton & Koonmen,
2020; Skoe & von der Lippe, 2002).
The Bird's Eye View Model used in this study represents multiple ethical paradigms
in leadership, each offering a unique perspective on ethical decision-making. This model
encourages leaders to engage with ethical principles in a reflective, rather than reactive,
manner, promoting self-awareness and critical examination of their assumptions and
decision-making processes. The framework includes eight ethical paradigms:
•

St’at’imc Matriarchal Leadership Ethics

•

Ethic of Justice

•

Ethic of Community

•

Ethic of Care

•

Ethic of Self-Care

•

Ethic of Discomfort

•

Ethic of the Profession

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Leaders guided by these paradigms are prompted to make decisions that begin with selfreflection on their own beliefs and values, expanding outward to consider the well-being of
those they impact, the broader community, and societal laws and policies. As part of the
adapted Multiple Ethical Paradigms framework, adopting the Bird’s Eye View Model
encourages leaders to approach ethical dilemmas as an ongoing cycle requiring continual reevaluation and adaptation, particularly as new information emerges, or unintended outcomes
arise. These ethical lenses have been integrated into the data collection tools, such as the
interview questionnaire and pre-interview sheets, to help identify the primary ethical lens that
Indian leaders operate from and to assess whether these paradigms shift after the
acculturation process. By applying this framework, the study aims to analyze how leadership
ethics respond to cultural change, fostering a comprehensive understanding of how cultural
adaptation influences ethical decision-making.
1.5 Summary
This introduction chapter introduced the study's background, motivation, and
objectives, highlighting a gap in ethical leadership literature, which often centres on Western
perspectives and overlooks Eastern contexts. Drawing from my experiences as an Indian
immigrant in Canada, the study aims to explore and compare the ethical leadership paradigms
of Indian leaders in India and Canada, focusing on the impact of acculturation. Utilizing
acculturation theory and the Bird’s Eye View Model of multiple ethical paradigms Hoare et
al.'s (2024), the study seeks to analyse how cultural adaptation shapes ethical beliefs and
practices. The next chapter will present a literature review on ethical leadership,
acculturation, and cultural influences on leadership practices, identifying gaps and
contextualizing this study’s contributions.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review
The aim of this literature review is to examine how ethical leadership is defined and
explored in the literature, particularly in the Indian context, as well as how it is situated
within broader Canadian or Western perspectives. The chapter begins by defining ethics and
ethical leadership, outlining foundational philosophical concepts and contemporary
interpretations. Following this, ethical leadership is examined within the Indian context,
considering both ancient traditions and contemporary organizational perspectives to illustrate
how cultural values shape leadership ethics over time. The next section explores ethical
leadership within the Canadian context, integrating Indigenous worldviews and contemporary
leadership practices in diverse sectors. This chapter also introduces acculturation theory to
explain how cultural adaptation may influence leadership perceptions and practices among
immigrant professionals. Finally, the multiple ethical paradigms framework and the Bird’s
Eye View Model are presented as the conceptual lens guiding this study’s analysis. The
chapter concludes by identifying gaps in the existing research and outlining the study’s
approach in addressing them.
2.1 Defining Ethics and Ethical Leadership
The term ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos. It signifies the customs or
usages that are particularly associated with one group, as opposed to another (Shapiro &
Stefkovich, 2016). As stated by John Dewey (1902), ethics is the study that focuses on
conduct as long as it is viewed as right or wrong, good or bad. Similarly, Harvey and Moeller
(2016) defined ethics as “an understanding of what is considered to be right and wrong
conduct” (p. 6). Expanding this view, Wood and Nevarez (2014) argued, “Ethics is defined as
the systemic, critical, and summative study of standards needed for moral living” (p.13).
To explore how ethical behaviour is evaluated in terms of intent and outcome,
Frankena (1973) outlined two main theoretical approaches: deontological and teleological

22
ethics. Deontological ethics is based on the idea that people should do what is right because it
is their moral duty, regardless of the outcome. This means an action is considered ethical if it
follows a rule or principle, such as always telling the truth. On the other hand, teleological
ethics focuses on the results of an action. According to this view, an action is ethical if it leads
to a good or desirable outcome. Building on this theoretical foundation, several scholars have
examined the role of ethics within organizational settings. As per Sharma et al. (2019), ethics
govern the actions, mindset, and behaviour of individuals. It plays a crucial role in enhancing
trust, equality, transparency, sincerity, and honesty among the workforce within the
organization. Similarly, Krishnamurthy (2011) argued that ethics generally refers to
“The concept has come to mean various things to various people, but generally in the
context of organizations coming to know what it right or wrong in the workplace and
doing what's right -- this is in regard to effects of products/services and in
relationships with stakeholders” (p.4).
However, as Hoare et al. (2024) noted, there is no single, universally accepted definition of
what is considered ethical. Understandings of ethics are shaped by multiple influences,
including political beliefs, cultural background, religion, personal experiences, and specific
circumstances. In this study, ethics is understood as a comprehensive area of inquiry focused
on determining what is morally right and wrong (Hoare et al., 2024).
Although discussions on ethics offer foundational insights, the concept acquires
additional layers of complexity when examined within organizational and leadership settings.
In such contexts, ethical conduct is not merely about individual choices but also about how
those in positions of power influence collective behaviour, shape organizational culture, and
respond to diverse stakeholder expectations. It is within this broader framework that the
concept of ethical leadership emerges, linking personal morality with professional
responsibility. Ethical leadership, therefore, extends beyond simply knowing what is right or

23
wrong. Gini (1997) describes moral leadership as a collaborative, influence-based
relationship between leaders and followers that involves shared commitment, inspires ethical
behaviour grounded in community values, relies on personal character and mentoring to set
ethical standards, and is inseparable from the ethical values reflected in leadership decisions
and actions. They further assert that “The leader’s world view cannot be totally solipsistic.
The leader’s agenda should not be purely self-serving. Leaders should not see followers as
potential adversaries to be bested, but rather as fellow travellers with similar aspirations and
rights to be reckoned with” (p.73). Building on this, Kanungo (2001) offers a comprehensive
perspective on ethical leadership, emphasizing its focus on what is morally good or right
rather than what is merely legal or procedurally correct. According to Kanungo, ethical
leadership is defined by three interrelated dimensions: the motives, acts, and character of
leaders. These elements are not only central to ethical conduct but also to its broader impact,
as he explains “In ethical leadership, the motives, acts, and characters of leaders result in the
moral development of both the leader and the followers, which in turn serve the interests of
their organizations and society at large” (p. 260). Similarly, Resick et al. (2006) define ethical
leadership as “leading in a manner that is respectful of the rights and dignity of others – that
is, ethical leadership” (p. 375). They explained, “As leaders are by nature in a position of
social power, ethical leadership focuses on how leaders use their social power in the decisions
they make, actions they engage in, and ways they influence others” (p. 346). The authors
further outline six key attributes that characterize ethical leadership: character and integrity,
ethical awareness, community or people-orientation, motivating, encouraging and
empowering others, and managing ethical accountability. These dimensions collectively
reflect a style of leadership that is inherently positive, people-centred, and grounded in ethical
responsibility. Brown and Mitchell (2010) contribute to this discourse by highlighting the
dual role of ethical leaders: they must not only embody strong moral character but also serve

24
as moral managers who institutionalize ethical practices within the organization. As they
assert, “individuals in power must be both strong moral persons and moral managers in order
to be seen as ethical leaders by those around them” (p. 585). In the context of education,
Wood and Nevarez (2014) emphasize the moral expectations embedded within leadership
roles. They state,
“When one combines the words ethics and leadership there is an assumption that one
is fulfilling their ethical standards through the practice of leadership. With this in
mind, ethical leadership is the practice of inspiring others towards a desired outcome
while exemplifying an established standard for moral living” (p.16).
Research conducted by Brown et al. (2005) serves as the foundational basis for how
ethical leadership is conceptualized in this study. They define ethical leadership as “the
demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal
relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way
communication, reinforcement, and decision-making” (p. 120). Importantly, the authors
clarify that the phrase “normatively appropriate” is “deliberately vague,” acknowledging that
ethical norms can vary significantly across organizations, industries, and cultural contexts (p.
120). For the purposes of this research, this definition will serve as the working
understanding of ethical leadership, as it captures both the behavioural and relational
dimensions of ethical conduct. Furthermore, it highlights the context-specific nature of
ethical leadership, shaped by the values, expectations, and norms of the environment in which
it is practiced.
2.2 Ethical Leadership in the Context of India
Ethical leadership in the Indian context can be understood through two main themes:
(1) ancient India thought and traditions, and (2) contemporary perspectives in India. Before
beginning the exploration of ethical leadership in ancient Indian, it is important to

25
acknowledge a key limitation in the available literature. Much of the existing literature in this
area reflects a male dominated and Brahminical perspective, as it is primarily authored by
individuals from Brahmin communities who historically held positions of power, education,
and authority. As a result, the prevailing narratives often represent Brahminical and
patriarchal interpretations of leadership. This limited scope is further shaped by the historical
context of caste-based hierarchies in ancient India (Singh, 2014). The origins of caste and
untouchability are commonly linked to the Aryan migration around 1500 BCE, during which
Indo Aryan tribes came into conflict with Indigenous communities. These Aryan tribes,
united by a shared language and religion, viewed the Indigenous populations as culturally
inferior and ritually impure, leading to deeply entrenched social divisions (Singh, 2014).
Over time, Brahmins emerged as the dominant caste, holding access to formal education,
religious authority, and leadership roles, which reinforced their prominence in historical texts
and interpretations of leadership (Singh, 2014). While India has a rich legacy of female
leadership, including figures such as Ahilyabai Holkar, Rani Lakshmibai, Razia Sultan,
Begum Hazrat Mahal, and Indira Gandhi, much of the literature on these women focuses on
their political and strategic leadership rather than ethical leadership specifically (Deshpande,
2022; Kaur, 2023; Mujawar, 2023). Since this section is centred on ethical leadership
traditions, such accounts are not included here, although their historical significance is
acknowledged and remains valuable for future exploration.
2.1.1 Ethical Leadership in Ancient India Thought and Traditions
India's rich intellectual heritage, especially its extensive literary traditions, has played
a significant role in shaping its approaches to leadership (Arujunan, 2022). In light of this,
this section explores what ancient Indian literature says about ethical leadership and how
these principles continue to reflect in modern Indian leadership practices. The idea of servant
leadership was embodied in the Dharmasutras, where the king was regarded as a servant of

26
the state, earning a wage through taxation. Thinkers like Kautilya (an ancient Indian teacher,
philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor) further emphasized that taxation established
a mutual responsibility between the king and his citizens, placing them on equal terms
regarding income and the distribution of resources (Altekar, 2002; Arujunan, 2022). Indian
governance was historically grounded in theological and sociological principles, yet it
allowed for the possibility of a ruler stepping down if he did not meet the established ethical
standards. The ideal form of governance was envisioned as a duty-oriented, consensual
relationship between the king and his subjects, guided by a Divine Code (Altekar, 2002).
Similarly, consulting knowledgeable and capable advisors was considered essential in ancient
Indian governance. The King's Council, or Ratnins, included influential figures such as
Queens, the Purohita (Royal Chaplain), the Senani (commander-in-chief), and other key
officials. Power sharing, known as Ubhayayatta, along with the delegation of authority,
played a critical role in ensuring effective administration (Altekar, 2002, p.3). The secretariat,
as a central organ of governance, was expected to comprise highly qualified and trustworthy
individuals, thereby strengthening the overall functioning of the state (Altekar, 2002).
Expanding on internal leadership qualities, Arujunan (2022) discusses the concept of
three Gunas (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas) which play a fundamental role in shaping a leader.
These Gunas describe internal qualities and behaviours of leaders. Sattva Guna, or the mode
of goodness, signifies qualities like knowledge, happiness, purity, and self-control. Leaders
who exhibit Sattva are characterized by intellectual capacity, responsibility, ethical conduct,
openness to constructive feedback, and a focus on higher values. Rajas Guna, the mode of
passion, manifests as restlessness, intense emotions, false pride, and emotional volatility.
Leaders dominated by Rajas tend to seek power and influence. Tamas Guna, or the mode of
ignorance, is associated with indifference, confusion, procrastination, and lack of control.
Leaders heavily influenced by Tamas display disorderly conduct and an inability to

27
effectively inspire or manage subordinates. It is suggested that leaders must engage in selfreflection and strive to regulate these Gunas to pursue higher goals grounded in ethical
standards and dharmic duty (Avancha, 2024).
Another classical source, ancient Indian scripture the Tirukkural, also known as the
Kural introduced a leadership theory entitled leadership excellence (Chendroyaperumal &
Meena, 2007). It presents a composite model of traits theory, behavioural theory, social
cognitive resource theory, and ethical theory of leadership. In ethical theory is implied that
ethics is an integral part of leadership. “To Thirukkural governance is just ethical behaviour,
devoid of all unethical ones, in high esteem. This implies that unethical behaviour by the
leaders is not governance but something else altogether” (Chendroyaperumal & Meena, 2007,
p.5). Traits such as impartiality (remaining unbiased), truthfulness, intelligence in pursuit of
truth, and social welfare orientation are highlighted as key leadership qualities. Ethical
leadership ensures that governance is complete and functional (Arujunan, 2022;
Chendroyaperumal & Meena, 2007).
Along the same lines, Nayak (2018) highlights that the Bhagavad Gita, a core
scripture of Sanatan Dharma, describes various leadership traits across its chapters. One
significant lesson drawn from the text is the idea of Nishkama Karma, which refers to
performing actions selflessly without attachment to the results. This concept introduces an
ethical dimension to leadership by encouraging leaders to act with a sense of duty and service
rather than for personal gain. It urges leaders to consider the ethical implications of their
actions and to make decisions guided by the principle of service instead of the desire for
sensory or material gratification. Building on this integration of values, Bodhananda (2022),
in his exploration of how the practice of yoga philosophy informs management and
leadership, presents the ethical dimension of leadership as a balance between efficiency and
moral values such as equity and compassion. He aligns this understanding of leadership with

28
the principles of conscious capitalism, emphasizing social impact and environmental
responsibility as integral to ethical leadership.
Taking a historical view, Sarkar (2020) traces the evolution of leadership in India
from the Vedic era through the epics of the Ramayana and Mahabharata to contemporary
times, proposing that a consistent leadership ideal has persisted across these periods: the
concept of Rājarshi Leadership. This model is fundamentally values and ethics-oriented,
rooted in spirituality, and presents ethical leadership as a synthesis of two core dimensions.
The Rishi dimension represents the spiritually enlightened sage who guides others with
selfless wisdom, while the Rāja dimension embodies the ruler who governs with authority
and ensures the welfare of society through the application of just laws. At the heart of this
model is the leader’s inner transformation, which serves as the foundation for a
transformative impact on the collective. The leader is thus expected to act in the interest of
the common good, skillfully balancing spiritual ideals with the practical responsibilities of
governance.
Bringing in a comparative perspective, Nahavandi and Krishnan (2017), in their study
on Indo European Leadership, examine how this model, which originates from the ancient
cultural, philosophical, and religious traditions of India and Iran, differs significantly from
typical Western leadership approaches. Indo European Leadership emphasizes a followerfocused and service-oriented perspective, in contrast to the more leader-centred nature of
Western models. Ethics and moral values are viewed as essential to leadership, with integrity,
honesty, humility, and accountability serving as foundational qualities. Leaders are expected
to uphold moral character, act truthfully, and maintain a respected public image. One of its
core principles is the practice of the middle path, which advocates moderation, careful
judgment, and balanced decision making aimed at achieving the greatest good for the largest
number of people. Leaders under the Indo-European Leadership model are accountable not

29
only to their followers but also to a higher moral or spiritual authority, where actions and
good deeds are believed to influence one's fate and collective destiny. Drawing from the
central themes explored in the preceding discussion, ethical leadership in ancient Indian
literature may be understood as a values-based and duty-oriented form of leadership that
integrates moral responsibility, spiritual wisdom, and public welfare.
Ethical leadership in ancient India is deeply rooted in spiritual, philosophical, and
duty-oriented principles. Ancient texts such as the Dharmasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and
Tirukkural emphasize servant leadership, moral responsibility, and governance guided by
ethical duty (dharma). Leaders were expected to act as servants of the state, balancing
authority with moral accountability and collective welfare. Internal qualities (gunas) like selfcontrol, responsibility, and ethical reflection were seen as shaping effective leadership.
Overall, ancient Indian perspectives frame ethical leadership as a synthesis of personal virtue,
public service, and spiritual consciousness, distinct from the leader-centered and procedural
approaches common in Western models.
2.1.2 Contemporary Perspectives on Ethical Leadership in India
Having examined ethical leadership through the lens of ancient Indian philosophy,
this section turns to contemporary scholarly research that investigates how ethical leadership
is studied across various organizational contexts in India. To begin, focusing on the telecom
sector, Saini and Sengupta (2016) investigated how middle managers perceive ethical and
responsible leadership. Their findings indicated that responsible conduct, particularly
accountability and responsiveness, had a greater impact on job satisfaction and commitment
than ethical behaviour alone. In fact, the study found that ethical behaviour showed no
significant relationship with employee commitment, suggesting that practical responsibility
may weigh more heavily than abstract ethics in employee assessments. Saini (2017)
reinforced these findings through a quantitative survey of 564 employees across seven service

30
sector organizations in North India. The study identified a moderate but positive relationship
between ethical leadership and both organizational commitment and perceived productivity.
These results suggest that ethical leadership is not only a moral imperative but also a driver of
organizational success. Jha and Singh (2019) extended this line of inquiry to examine the role
of ethical leadership in shaping industrial relations. Using examples from Maruti Suzuki,
Bajaj Auto, Tata Motors, and others, they explored the link between ethical leadership and
employee voice. Their findings, framed through social support theory, revealed that ethical
leaders earn employee trust and reduce reliance on unions, while a negative correlation was
found between ethical leadership and union commitment; employees who received fair
treatment from leaders felt greater loyalty to the organization itself (Jha & Singh, 2019). In
addition, Sharmaet al. (2019) examined ethical leadership among 340 middle-level managers
in Indian manufacturing firms. Using factor analysis, they identified two key dimensions:
empowerment, and motive and character. The study revealed that private sector leaders were
perceived more positively. Notably, superiors rated themselves higher on ethical leadership
than their subordinates did, revealing a potential overestimation of their own ethical
behaviour. Importantly, ethical leadership was associated with reduced unethical conduct and
improved job performance and commitment among subordinates.
Building on these findings, Goswami et al. (2021) conducted a cross-sectoral study
involving 400 participants from Indian organizations across public sector research and
development institutions, IT companies, and academic institutions on perception of ethical
leadership. Their findings revealed that gender did not significantly affect perceptions of
ethical leadership, with both male and female participants showing similar levels of moral
reasoning (Goswami et al., 2021). However, differences emerged with age, particularly
between individuals in the 20–29 and 30–39 age groups, while no significant variance was
found in older age brackets (Goswami et al., 2021). Work experience also shaped

31
perceptions: those with more than 10 years of experience differed significantly in their
assessment of ethical leadership compared to less experienced groups. Interestingly,
employees in lower-level management perceived their leaders as more ethical than those in
senior positions (Goswami et al., 2021). Sectoral comparisons showed that private sector
employees rated their leaders as more ethical than those in public organizations, a distinction
attributed to divergent work cultures and operational values within these sectors (Goswami et
al., 2021). It is important to note that in the research conducted by Goswami et al. (2021),
participants were not asked to define or describe ethical leadership in their own words.
Instead, their perceptions of ethical leadership were measured using a standardized 10-item
scale developed by Brown et al. (2005). The link between ethical leadership and employee
outcomes is further supported by Mishra and Tikoria (2021), who examined the impact of
ethical leadership on organizational climate and its subsequent effect on the commitment of
doctors in Indian hospitals. Based on data from 537 professionals across public and private
institutions, their study found that ethical leadership significantly influenced organizational
climate, which in turn enhanced doctors’ organizational commitment. They emphasized the
need for training hospital leadership to foster an ethical environment (Mishra & Tikoria,
2021).
Finally, Mehra and Narwal (2025) offered insights into the mediating role of ethical
climate. Based on responses from 150 employees in various Indian organizations, they
concluded that ethical leadership alone does not guarantee ethical behaviour in the absence of
a supportive ethical climate. Their study confirmed that organizational atmosphere plays a
critical role in translating leadership values into employee actions.
Taken together, these studies suggest that contemporary ethical leadership in India is
understood primarily as a pragmatic and relational practice, where accountability,
empowerment, and trust-building play key roles in leader-follower dynamics. While ethical

32
leadership is recognized as a moral imperative, these studies emphasize its instrumental role
in enhancing employee commitment, productivity, and organizational success. Leadership
practices appear to be shaped by sectoral differences, hierarchical positions, and work
experience, with private sector organizations generally perceived as fostering more ethical
environments. However, the reliance on quantitative survey methods and standardized
measures, such as Brown et al.’s (2005) scale, reveals a limitation in capturing deeper,
context-specific understandings of ethical leadership. Overall, the findings characterize
ethical leadership in India as largely managerial and outcome-oriented
2.3 Ethical Leadership in the Context of Canada
Ethical leadership in the Canadian context can be explored through two key lenses:
(1) Indigenous perspectives rooted in traditional knowledge systems and community values,
and (2) contemporary perspectives of the dominant culture in Canada.
2.2.1 Indigenous Peoples Perspectives
This section explores ethical leadership from lands which are now commonly referred
to as Canada, and in doing so, it is essential to acknowledge that the land has a long and rich
history shaped by Indigenous peoples, including First Nations, Inuit, and Metis. Any
discussion of leadership in the Canadian context would be incomplete without considering
Indigenous perspectives. However, it is important to note that while there is a growing body
of literature on Indigenous ways of leadership and governance, there remains a noticeable
lack of literature that explicitly focuses on ethical leadership from the diverse Indigenous
cultures and traditions of First Nations, Inuit, and Metis communities. This section also
examines potential reasons for this gap. Despite an extensive literature search, only one book
was found to explicitly discuss ethical leadership through the lens of Indigenous peoples
within what is now referred to as Canada as this source will be examined in greater detail
within the methodology section, it will not be repeated here to avoid redundancy. However, in

33
order to provide relevant context and honour the knowledge that does exist, this section
draws on key literature that highlights Indigenous peoples’ perspectives on leadership. The
following discussion therefore focuses on how Indigenous worldviews conceptualize
leadership in ways that inherently align with ethical practice, even if not framed in those
exact terms.
A study conducted by Brant (2021) offers valuable insight into how culture shaped the
experiences and choices of six Indigenous leaders. The study was situated in Canada and
focused on Indigenous leadership and cultural paradigms within the context of Indigenous
communities in Canada. It explored Indigenous life specifically through the experiences and
perspectives of Canadian Indigenous peoples, with references to the Assembly of First
Nations, Canadian constitutional discussions, and Indigenous Nations such as the
Ongwehon:we (Mohawk), Nêhiyaw (Cree), and other First Nations across Canada. For the
study participants, Indigenous leadership is rooted in their traditional language, ceremonies,
and cultural values, which are transmitted through family and community at an early age,
rather than shaped by the formal education system in Canada: “First, Indigenous leaders are
almost always mentored from a young age to assume the mantles of leadership” (p. 203).
Additionally, participants described Indigenous leadership as grounded in relational
accountability and collective decision-making, rather than the individualistic or hierarchical
models commonly found in Western leadership paradigms (Brant, 2021). This cultural
difference is evident in the observation of one study participant:
I heard leader after leader state they had to consult their community when faced
with agreeing to a new policy or program. This reticence was not because they
were incapable of making a decision; rather, it was a deeply embedded value of
community, a cultural characteristic that is synonymous with an Indigenous
worldview (p. 195).

34
The importance of community is further emphasized by Macpherson (2024), who observed
that leadership approaches in Indigenous cultures, including Celtic, Māori, North American
Indian, First Nations communities in Canada, Australian Aboriginal, and Emirati
communities, typically operate on principles of shared governance and collective
participation. Macpherson found that these approaches prioritize inclusive decision making
and reflect the communal nature of leadership rooted in Indigenous worldviews. The
Indigenous worldview, as described by Macpherson (2024), refers to a holistic perspective
that deeply integrates environmental, social, and spiritual dimensions. It emphasizes the
interconnectedness of all living beings, the importance of maintaining balance and harmony
within the natural world, and the collective well-being of communities.
In line with this, Indigenous (Mohawk Nation) governance structures are closely
intertwined with cultural paradigms, language, ceremonies, and spiritual practices (Brant,
2021). These elements are not peripheral but central to defining leadership roles and
responsibilities. In contrast, Western governance systems tend to separate leadership from
cultural and spiritual dimensions, often emphasizing individual authority and secularism
(Brant, 2021). In contrast, Brant (2021) highlights that “Indigenous population (Mohawk
Nation) not only expects but also demands that Indigenous leaders comply with their cultural
and tribal paradigms” (p. 204).
Equally significant is the Indigenous worldview regarding land. Land is not regarded
merely as a resource or commodity but as a living, relational entity. This perspective
reinforces values such as respect, responsibility, and interconnectedness with all elements of
creation, including water, animals, celestial beings, and the land itself. Indigenous leaders, as
Brant notes, believe that humans are just one small part of a broader living world (Brant,
2021). This holistic worldview was beautifully captured in the words of one Indigenous

35
leader from the Mohawk Nation of Akwesasne reflecting on education and ceremonial
practice:
When you enter the Longhouse whether it is for a meeting or ceremony, they start
with an opening or thanksgiving. We call it Ohenta Karihwatehkwen or the words
that comes before all else and in that they offer thanksgiving from mother earth, it
starts from there, waters, land, trees, animals, birds, winds, grandmother moon,
grandfather sun beyond the heavens to ultimately to the creator. Everything
dispatched to it and in each part reserves where you attribute all the parts of
creation that have to be acknowledged and that sets a tempo. That sets the
peaceful mind. It clears the mind so that at the end, you say whatever has to be
done or said today we will do it in a clear mind and say things in a good way,
respectful of each other. Not just to each other, but we have to have respect for the
land that we walk on (pp. 143–144).
While exploring Indigenous leadership through the wisdom of Elders (Muskeg Inniwak
community part of Swampy Cree Nation), Young (2006) asserts that Indigenous leadership
encompasses both cultural and moral responsibilities. These responsibilities are guided by
established protocols and intergenerational knowledge, which emphasize the importance of
serving the community with honour while preserving cultural heritage. In support of this
view, Macpherson (2024) conducted a comparative study examining Indigenous ethical
frameworks across several cultural groups, including Celtic, Māori, North American Indian,
First Nations communities in Canada, Australian Aboriginal, and Emirati communities. These
were analysed alongside modern Western ethical ideas in the context of educative leadership.
One of the central observations from this study is that “Indigenous moral philosophies often
intertwine spirituality with ethical decision-making, while Western frameworks usually
maintain a separation between the spiritual and secular” (p. 129). This observation suggests

36
that for educational and community leaders operating in Indigenous contexts, leadership must
not only consider ethics and justice but also embrace spiritual expression and teachings.
Furthermore, Macpherson (2024) emphasizes that “Indigenous moral philosophies
emphasise ethical conduct as a central leadership duty” (p. 128), reinforcing the idea that for
many Indigenous cultures, ethics are not a separate consideration but inherent to leadership
itself. This is echoed by Mixalhíts’a7 and Grizzlypaws (2024), who, while exploring
St’at’imc matriarchal leadership ethics, questioned the need to label leadership as “ethical” at
all: “When you say ethical leadership… Do we need to put ‘ethical’ in there? Leadership
should be ethical to be begin with, right? It’s one and the same” (Chapter 3, para.1). Such
insights illustrate how Indigenous leadership inherently integrates ethics as a foundational
element, not as an optional or external addition.
In more multicultural settings, a study by Morin and Talbot (2023) found that
leadership within Nunavik’s health system responds to a complex interplay of cultural,
professional, and ethical challenges. Nunavik has a high population of Inuit, yet most health
services in the region are delivered by non-Inuit professionals from outside the community.
This creates significant issues related to representation, cultural alignment, and quality of
care. Importantly, Morin and Talbot (2023) explored the contextual factors that influence
ethical leadership in Nunavik. Ethical leadership is defined as “Being ethical is defined as
demonstrating normatively appropriate conduct. Additionally, ethics are reflected in personal
actions and healthy interpersonal relationships, such as two-way communications, positive
reinforcement, and shared decision-making” (Morin & Talbot, 2023; p. 583). Moreover, they
found that both individual and organizational elements shape ethical behaviour. On the
individual level, barriers such as inauthenticity, strained relationships between senior and
middle managers, and rigid adherence to standard norms can hinder ethical leadership. In
contrast, organizational factors include the urgent need for culturally sensitive healthcare,

37
difficulties in maintaining uninterrupted services, and ongoing staffing shortages. These
findings highlight the importance of recognizing both structural and interpersonal dynamics
in fostering ethical leadership in Indigenous healthcare contexts.
In addition, Macpherson (2024) also explores how Indigenous ethical leadership is
deeply rooted in ecological and spiritual principles. For example, “In Celtic and Māori
traditions, ethical responsibilities are intertwined with spiritual and environmental respect,
emphasising the moral duty to care for the land and future generations” (p. 128). Ethical
leadership, in this view, extends beyond human relationships to include responsibility toward
the natural world and the continuity of life across generations. By contrast, Western models
of ethical leadership often prioritize secular, rational values such as integrity and justice
(Brant, 2021). While important, these are typically grounded in formal legal systems and
universal principles, which can overlook the embedded cultural, spiritual, and ecological
dimensions emphasized in Indigenous moral frameworks. As Macpherson notes, “Indigenous
moral frameworks often operate within customary laws and traditions, while Western ethics
are typically grounded in formal legal systems and universal principles” (p. 129). Taken
together, these perspectives highlight that although the terminology and emphasis may differ,
Indigenous traditions articulate a rich and integrated approach to leadership in which ethics,
spirituality, land stewardship, and community accountability are inseparably linked.
2.2.2 Contemporary Perspectives on Ethical Leadership in Canada
To understand how ethical leadership is conceptualized within the Canadian context,
it is helpful to begin by examining how values and leadership intersect across cultural and
institutional frameworks. Begley and Wong (2001), in their comparative exploration of
ethical leadership in education, observe that both Eastern and Western societies have become
increasingly pluralistic, leading to diverse and often conflicting demands in school
environments. However, a key distinction they draw is that Western nations such as Canada

38
and the United States have developed ethics and values into more institutionalized and
collective frameworks for educational leadership. For instance, research centres focusing on
values-based leadership have emerged, alongside sustained scholarly dialogue through
conferences and collaborations. Since 1996, two research centres dedicated to the study of
values and leadership have been established in North America. The first is the Centre for the
Study of Values and Leadership at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at
the University of Toronto. The second is the Centre for the Study of Leadership and Ethics,
which is affiliated with the University Council for Educational Administration and based at
the University of Virginia. Both centres have contributed significantly to the scholarly
exploration of ethical leadership, moral decision making, and the development of valuesdriven educational practices (Begley & Wong, 2001). In contrast, Eastern traditions including
Chinese and Indian perspectives tend to frame leadership ethics through long-standing
cultural heritages and personal practice, often emphasizing personal moral development over
formal theoretical discourse (Begley & Wong, 2001).
Evidence of ethical leadership’s influence is found in Siegel’s (2013) study on the
Canadian Armed Forces. In this context, ethical leadership is conceptualized as leaders acting
with integrity and fairness, promoting ethical standards, and making morally sound decisions
particularly in high pressure military environments. Such leadership practices are shown to
play a critical role in maintaining personnel trust and commitment In the healthcare sector in
British Columbia, Canada, Storch et al. (2013) explored the role of formal nurse leaders in
guiding ethical behaviour within nursing teams. The study describes ethical leadership as a
multifaceted responsibility. Ethical leadership involves leaders taking personal responsibility
for their own ethical behaviour and actively fostering a work environment, a moral
community where shared values are clearly defined, guide decision making, and where staff
feel safe to express their opinions (Storch et al., 2013). Ethical leadership in this context

39
involves exemplifying ethical management behaviour, recognized as one of the most
effective methods to encourage ethical conduct. Adding to this discussion, Haque and
Yamoah (2021) investigated the role of ethical leadership in managing occupational stress
and promoting innovative work behaviour in small and medium sized cargo logistics firms in
Canada and Pakistan. Although the study does not offer a single formal definition, it outlines
how ethical leaders build trust, foster open communication, and create environments where
employees feel psychologically safe to challenge the existing system. Importantly, ethical
leadership is presented as a stress reducing factor that enables risk taking and creativity,
emphasizing autonomy, social responsibility, and moral judgment.
In a related but distinct context, Langlois and Lapointe (2007) investigated ethical
leadership within French language minority schools across seven Canadian provinces. Their
study focused on the unique challenges and opportunities faced by school principals as they
strive to preserve and promote the linguistic and cultural identity of within the communities
they serve. Langlois and Lapointe defined ethical leadership as “linked to moral leadership,
[which] constitutes the highest level in the development of knowledge and skills in
postmodern leadership” (p. 249). They authors highlighted the importance of combining three
ethical perspectives of justice, care, and e-critique) to understand the multifaceted nature of
ethical leadership more effectively within linguistic minority school environments. They
found that ethical leadership develops over time, shifting from mainly relying on the ethic of
justice among less experienced principals to adopting a more comprehensive approach that
incorporates both care and critique ethics as principals gain experience.
Taken together, these studies demonstrate that ethical leadership in the Canadian
context is understood and practiced through a variety of lenses depending on the sector and
setting. Whether in the military, healthcare, education, or French-language speaking
communities, ethical leaders consistently emphasize integrity, fairness, accountability,

40
autonomy, and a strong sense of social responsibility. Moreover, this section highlights the
growing need for context-sensitive approaches while studying ethical leadership, particularly
in culturally diverse or underserved environments.
2.4 Acculturation
The concept of acculturation originated in the late nineteenth century with John
Wesley Powell (1880), who used it to describe cultural change among Indigenous groups
following contact with Western societies. This early usage reflected colonial assumptions that
framed Indigenous cultures as primitive and in need of civilization (Powell, 1880; Rudmin,
2003). While initially used among Powell’s academic circle, the term later gained broader
relevance through anthropological and psychological research (Rudmin, 2003).
In 1936, Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits offered a foundational definition of
acculturation as cultural change that results from continuous direct contact between distinct
cultural groups. Their memorandum distinguished acculturation from assimilation and
provided methodological guidance for its study (Redfield et al., 1936). The Social Science
Research Council later expanded this definition to include internal adaptations and noncultural triggers, such as environmental and demographic changes (Elhami and Roshan,
2024). John Berry’s influential work introduced a fourfold model of acculturation strategies:
assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization. He emphasized that acculturation is
not a one-way process but a reciprocal exchange that affects both migrants and host societies
(Berry, 1980, 1997, 2006a). Sam and Berry (2010) later extended this view by describing
acculturation as a dynamic and continuous negotiation of cultural identity, influenced by
power dynamics, societal structures, and psychological development.
In educational settings, acculturation theory has supported researchers in examining
student adjustment, identity, and well-being. Amos and Lordly (2014) found that traditional
food practices helped international students in Canada preserve cultural identity and ease

41
their transition. Smith and Khawaja (2011) emphasized acculturation as a reciprocal process
shaped by both student experiences and institutional practices, calling for more studies that
consider institutional stressors and coping strategies. Berry and Hou (2016) identified four
acculturation profiles among Canadian immigrants and found that integrative strategies,
which involve maintaining connections to both heritage and host cultures, were associated
with improved mental health and life satisfaction. Jia and Krettenauer (2022) demonstrated
that mainstream acculturation predicted moral identity development in Chinese Canadian
youth, particularly influenced by age of arrival. Barker (2017), examining organizational
settings, concluded that bicultural individuals selectively blended cultural values and that the
construction of third culture occurred most frequently when strong ties to the home culture
were preserved.
While existing literature on acculturation outcomes provides limited theoretical
insight into how acculturation influences perceptions of leadership, the following studies
represent noteworthy exceptions (Liang et al., 2021). Trevino (2010) examined Latino elected
officials in the United States and found that lower levels of acculturation were associated
with a preference for transformational leadership, suggesting that stronger identification with
Latino culture fostered more relational, supportive leadership approaches. Sibanda and
Seyama-Mokhaneli (2024) investigated immigrant teachers in South Africa, emphasizing
acculturation as a site of cultural negotiation and resistance within leadership roles. They
highlighted how exclusion from dominant school cultures created barriers to leadership
integration, positioning acculturation as both a cultural and political process. Finally, Liang,
Sendjaya, and Abeysekera (2021) examined Chinese immigrant professionals in Australia
and found that acculturation influenced both the stability and content of implicit leadership
theories. Their findings suggest that cultural adaptation not only affects outward leadership
behaviour but also reshapes internalized beliefs about what leadership should look like.

42
Together, these studies demonstrate the versatility and depth of acculturation theory as a tool
for analysing cultural adaptation across settings. From student transitions and professional
retention to leadership formation, acculturation provides a valuable lens for understanding
how individuals respond to cultural change, navigate identity, and reshape social participation
in diverse environments.
2.5 Multiple Ethical Paradigms
The multiple ethical paradigms framework is a conceptual approach that helps leaders
analyse ethical dilemmas from various perspectives or lenses to determine what is right and
wrong (Hoare et al., 2024; Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016). It recognizes that no single ethical
lens is sufficient on its own, as each has strengths and weaknesses. By combining multiple
paradigms, leaders can gain a deeper, more comprehensive understanding of complex ethical
issues and become more reflective and thoughtful in their decision-making (Hoare et al.,
2024). It is important to note that there is no hierarchy among these lenses; none is
considered superior to the others. However, relying exclusively on a single lens can constrain
understanding and reinforce existing biases (Hoare et al., 2024). This framework informs
moral decision-making as part of the broader Bird’s Eye View model, which expands ethical
reflection from the self to community, institutions, and systems (Hoare et al., 2024).
2.5.1 Bird’s Eye View Model
Starratt (1991) first defined ethical leadership as grounded in three interdependent
dimensions of ethics: justice, critique, and care. These foundational paradigms laid the
groundwork for early ethical paradigms frameworks and were subsequently expanded to
incorporate additional ethical orientations. The ethic of community was later proposed by
Furman (2004), and the ethic of the profession was subsequently added by Shapiro and
Stefkovich (2016). The Bird's Eye View framework represents a comprehensive model of

43
multiple ethical lenses that offers a holistic perspective on ethical leadership. The Bird’s Eye
View, first proposed by Hoare et al. (2024), functions as a conceptual framework that
supports ethical decision-making by encouraging leaders to integrate multiple ethical
paradigms rather than privileging a singular moral lens. It is designed to explore how various
ethical orientations such as justice, care, critique, community, profession, discomfort, selfcare and Indigenous leadership ethics interact with one another across diverse contexts.
Rather than proceeding through a linear or static process, the Bird’s Eye View encourages a
dynamic and cyclical approach, wherein ethical reasoning begins from within and gradually
expands outward to others, communities, and institutional systems. This movement outward
is not simply procedural but reflective of growing moral awareness and ethical maturity.
As leaders evolve over time and encounter new information, relationships, and institutional
demands, the Bird’s Eye View Model invites continual re-examination of assumptions,
values, and chosen ethical stances (Hoare et al., 2024). Decision-making is understood not as
a fixed endpoint but as a recurring cycle that must remain open to revision. Leaders are
encouraged to admit missteps, learn from unintended consequences, and revise their actions
in the light of new understanding. At its core, this framework emphasizes that ethical
leadership must be grounded in humility, self-reflection, and relational accountability. It
affirms that the capacity for transformation lies not only within systems but within the leaders
themselves, and that meaningful change begins with the willingness to lead ethically from a
place of openness and continuous learning. The eight ethical paradigms are discussed in
detail below:
1. Ethic of justice
2. Ethic of critique
3. Ethic of care
4. Ethic of community

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5. Ethic of profession
6. Ethic of self-care
7. Ethic of discomfort
8. St’at’imc matriarchal leadership ethics (Indigenous perspective)
2.5.1.1 Ethic of Justice. The ethic of justice is a moral framework centred on
principles of equality, fairness, and the protection of individual rights. It emphasizes treating
individuals according to universal ethical standards and ensuring that fairness guides
decision-making processes (Frick et al., 2012; Shapiro et al., 2014; Skoe & von der Lippe,
2002). In this approach, the primary concern is adherence to established rules, codes, and
standards, rather than the outcomes of decisions. While leaders may hope for positive results,
the emphasis remains on maintaining fairness and consistency throughout the decisionmaking process (Nevarez et al., 2013). This framework aligns with a deontological and nonconsequentialist perspective, in which the morality of an action is judged based on its
compliance with predefined rules, not the consequences it generates (Beckner, 2004).
Chryssides and Kaler (1996) identified five forms of justice that relate to this paradigm:
procedural, substantive, retributive, remedial, and distributive. Among these, the ethic of
justice most closely aligns with procedural justice, which prioritizes the impartial and
consistent application of rules, and distributive justice, which focuses on the fair allocation of
resources and opportunities (Wood and Hilton, 2012).
The ethic of justice, grounded in Western philosophy, emphasizes individual
autonomy, rational reasoning, and universal principles in ethical decision-making. Influential
contributors include John Rawls, who introduced the idea of justice as fairness derived from
an impartial veil of ignorance (Freeman, 2023; Rawls, 1971), and Lawrence Kohlberg, whose
model of moral development placed justice-based reasoning at its highest level (Kohlberg,
1973). While foundational, this paradigm has been critiqued for its individualistic and male-

45
centric bias. Gilligan (1982) introduced the ethic of care in response, highlighting relational
and contextual ethics. Scholars now call for broader perspectives: Randall (2023) promoted
relational justice, while Blackstock (2007) and Confalonieri et al. (2007) advocated for
ecological and Indigenous frameworks in response to global crises. In practice, justiceoriented leaders stress impartiality, equality, and rule-based fairness (Shapiro & Stefkovich,
2016), often upholding procedural justice. However, critics caution that strict adherence to
rules may overlook structural inequities (Nevarez et al., 2013).
Critiques of the ethic of justice point to its historical development within Western
philosophical traditions, which often centred the experiences of white, male, property-owning
individuals (Botting, 2016). This narrow foundation has led to calls for a more inclusive and
relational understanding of justice that accounts for power, privilege, and cultural identity
(Engsjö-Lindgren, 2021). For example, Hare (2022) emphasized the importance of
Indigenous rights and relational accountability in education, where justice must be grounded
in community values and mutual responsibility. In summary, the ethic of justice provides
essential ethical grounding in leadership, promoting transparency and fairness.
2.5.1.2 Ethic of Critique. The ethic of critique is grounded in critical theory and
challenges leaders to interrogate systems of power, privilege, and exclusion within
educational and organizational contexts. It positions ethical leadership as a reflective and
disruptive force that identifies and seeks to dismantle inequities perpetuated by systemic
norms, institutional policies, and cultural assumptions (Berges Puyo, 2022; Shapiro &
Stefkovich, 2016). Wood and Hilton (2012) emphasized that the ethic of critique positions
law as a potential vehicle for systemic oppression, and thus ethical leaders must actively
question how institutional structures sustain privilege. They propose that ethical decision
making requires not only moral sensitivity, which is the capacity to recognize and understand
inequity and injustice, but also a willingness to address these inequities through

46
transformative actions. Unlike ethical paradigms focused on procedural justice or relational
care, the ethic of critique compels leaders to examine how structures marginalize individuals
based on class, race, gender, language, or immigration status (Wood & Hilton, 2012). It
advocates for a praxis-oriented form of leadership that connects critical awareness with
transformative action (Berges-Puyó, 2022). In this view, ethical leadership entails actively
questioning whether the laws, rules, and expectations within an institution uphold fairness
and inclusivity or reinforce dominant ideologies. Robert J. Starratt (1991) officially
introduced the ethic of critique in 1991, highlighting ethical conduct focused on tackling
social inequalities involving race, class, gender, ability, and other elements that influence
power dynamics and resource accessibility. The intellectual roots of the ethic of critique are
found in the Frankfurt School in Germany during the 1920s and 1930s, where thinkers like
Iris M. Young, Jurgen Habermas, Max Horkheimer, and Theodor Adorno formulated critical
theory (Langlois, 2011). Their aim was to free people from oppressive social, political, and
cultural forces, particularly as a reaction to the emergence of fascism, the influence of mass
media, and the growth of consumer culture (Horkheimer, 1982). The ethic of critique also
draws from eighteenth century Marxist philosophy, which examined capitalism, class
conflict, and dominant social systems in a critical way (Marx & Engels,1848/1888). This
Marxist foundation influenced the development of critical theory’s broader exploration of
different forms of oppression, including those based on race, gender, and ability, thus
strengthening the ethical foundation of the ethic of critique.
Empirical research shows that educational leaders who value the ethic of critique are
often driven by a commitment to advocacy, cultural responsiveness, and social justice. For
example, Vogel (2012) found that school leaders espoused ethical frameworks rooted in
cultural proficiency, risk taking, equity, and empowerment, values that reflect a desire to
create transformative change rather than uphold the status quo. Similarly, Berges-Puyó

47
(2022) emphasized the ethic of critique as a mechanism for creating “heartful” educational
environments where diverse voices are heard, institutional flaws are addressed, and ethical
leadership is human-centred and inclusive (p. 146). Applied in cross-cultural and immigrant
leadership contexts, the ethic of critique is especially vital. It encourages the interrogation of
Eurocentric leadership norms and supports the inclusion of diverse cultural values in
decision-making. Leaders who embody this ethic facilitate trust-based cultures, promote
equitable access to opportunity, and challenge systems that silence marginalized voices.
2.5.1.3 Ethic of Care. The ethic of care is a relational ethical framework that
emphasizes empathy, responsiveness, and attentiveness to the needs of others within specific
interpersonal and social contexts. Unlike rule-based or justice-oriented paradigms that
prioritize autonomy, impartiality, or abstract reasoning, the ethic of care recognizes that moral
understanding arises from human interdependence and lived relationships (Gilligan, 1982;
Held, 2006; Noddings, 1984). Gilligan (1982) introduced the ethic of care as a challenge to
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, arguing that women often approach moral
dilemmas through an orientation grounded in responsibility and care for others, rather than
through abstract principles of justice. Noddings (1984) built on this by proposing that care is
a moral attitude and practice, grounded in receptivity, engrossment, and commitment between
the one caring and the cared-for. She emphasized that care ethics are contextual, rooted in
specific relationships, and shaped by an ethic of response rather than obligation. Held (2006)
expanded the scope of care ethics into political theory, arguing that the ethic of care reveals
the moral significance of dependency, vulnerability, and relational obligations. She critiqued
dominant liberal traditions for neglecting the ethical weight of caring relationships,
particularly in globalized and institutional settings. In contrast to the ethic of justice, which
emphasizes fairness and individual rights, the ethic of care focuses on responsiveness to

48
needs of others and the importance of interpersonal relationships (Frick et al., 2012; Shapiro
et al., 2014; Skoe & von der Lippe, 2002).
Louis et al. (2016) highlighted three pillars of caring leadership: knowing those being
cared for, being motivated to promote their well-being, and having that care recognized by
others. Leaders who practice care intentionally cultivate culture of empathy where staff and
students feel respected, supported, and heard. These environments foster collaboration,
increase morale, and improve academic and social outcomes (Owens & Ennis, 2005). In
educational leadership, this translates to prioritizing student and staff well-being, fostering
inclusive environments, and making space for diverse voices. Leaders practicing the ethic of
care are more likely to build trust, engage in dialogical processes, and promote shared
decision-making (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016).
Recent empirical work demonstrates how care-based leadership contributes to broader
social and economic outcomes. For instance, Stajkovic and Stajkovic (2024) found that
women mayors in the United States were more likely than men to adopt inclusive practices
aligned with care ethics, such as addressing racial gaps in housing, education, and income
which in turn positively affected the economic health of their cities. Their study provides
evidence that ethics of care leadership fosters racial inclusion, which acts as a mediator for
sustainable urban revitalization.
2.5.1.4. Ethic of Community. The ethic of community is an ethical framework that
positions leadership as a shared, collective responsibility grounded in relationships,
participation, and the pursuit of the common good. Rather than viewing ethical leadership
through the lens of individual heroism or authority, this paradigm shifts moral agency to the
broader community, emphasizing collaboration, mutual accountability, and inclusive decision
making (Furman, 2004). At its core, the ethic of community rejects individualistic models of
leadership and instead promotes a distributed approach, where all members of a community

49
contribute to ethical dialogue and action. This includes developing interpersonal and group
capacities such as respectful communication, team collaboration, and ongoing engagement
with diverse perspectives (Barcinas & Fleener, 2023). Leadership, in this view, is not a role
held by one person, but a process that unfolds through the actions and commitments of many.
Community, within this paradigm, is not treated as a fixed or idealized outcome but as
a dynamic, evolving process shaped by human interaction. Ethical community building
requires a sustained commitment to relational practices such as reciprocity, dialogue, shared
inquiry, and collective reflection (Furman, 2002). It aligns closely with the idea of deep
democracy, which values inclusive governance, particularly in conditions of complexity and
uncertainty (Furman, 2004; Mindell, 2002). The ethic of community is an ethical framework
rooted in traditions that emphasize relational responsibility, shared values, and collective
well-being. While formally developed by Gail Furman (2004), its philosophical foundations
span ancient, communitarian, and democratic thought. The paradigm challenges liberal
individualism by centring ethics in collaboration, interdependence, and social participation
(Etzioni, 1996; Furman, 2002).
Modern communitarianism arose in response to liberal theories like Rawls’ A Theory
of Justice (1971), emphasizing that individuals are socially embedded and have
responsibilities to their communities (Etzioni, 1996, 2014; Bell, 2024; Galston, 1993). Bell
(2024) and Chang (2022) outlined three forms of community: geographic, historical, and
psychological united by shared norms and mutual care. Furman (2004), drawing on Dewey’s
concept of participatory democracy, redefined community as an evolving and dialogic
process rooted in deep democracy (Barcinas & Fleener, 2023; Mindell, 2002). Deep
democracy is defined as “the intellectual and practical commitment to equity, freedom, and
self-determination through shared power and popular participation in free and just
(sovereign) communities” (Barcinas & Fleener, 2023) (p. 133). She positioned leadership as a

50
collective, inclusive practice shaped by dialogue and relational accountability (Furman,
2002). This ethic supports social justice in education by centring equity, cultural exchange,
and interdependence (Furman & Starratt, 2002). It challenges neoliberal priorities like
competition and efficiency, instead valuing inclusive governance and marginalized voices
(Busch, 2017; Schneider & Peek, 2018).
Research has shown that community-centred leadership reduces isolation, enhances
student belonging, and fosters professional collegiality, for example, these relational
conditions have been linked to stronger academic engagement and healthier work
environments (Beck & Murphy, 1996; Bryk & Driscoll, 1988; Shouse, 1996). Crawford
(2017), for instance, found that decisions made through a communal lens, especially in
contexts involving undocumented students, led to more equitable and inclusive school
outcomes. In summary, the ethic of community is a relational and inclusive leadership
framework that emphasizes shared responsibility, collaboration, and social justice over
individual authority, positioning ethical leadership as a collective, evolving process rooted in
dialogue and mutual care.
2.5.1.5 Ethic of the Profession. The ethic of the profession is an ethical paradigm
that draws upon the internal norms, codes of conduct, and moral expectations specific to
one’s professional role (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016). Unlike the ethic of justice, which relies
on external laws, this paradigm is grounded in the profession’s own ethical codes, individual
personal values, and the institution’s mission (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016). Ethical decisions
under this framework are not only guided by formal codes but also by reflection on the
profession’s role in promoting the public good.
This ethic is both deontological, in its orientation toward duty and adherence to
professional codes, and axiological, in its concern for virtues such as honesty and fairness
(Wood & Hilton, 2012). As such, it challenges leaders to consider not only what is

51
permissible, but what is responsible and expected of them as ethical professionals. In the
context of community and postsecondary leadership, these values are articulated through
frameworks like the code of ethics Academic Senate for California Community Colleges’
Code of Ethics, (Academic Senate for California Community Colleges, 2021), which outlines
leaders’ responsibilities to boards, institutional personnel, students, peer institutions, and
local communities. These standards emphasize transparency, equity, and responsible use of
authority.
According to Shapiro and Stefkovich (2016), ethical decision-making within the
profession should reflect a balance between personal moral conscience, professional
standards, and sensitivity to contextual factors. Leaders who follow the ethic of the
profession are expected to adopt a dynamic and multidimensional approach to ethics. They
recognize the complexities of contemporary leadership and move beyond questions of justice,
care, and critique to consider what their profession and community expect of them (Shapiro
& Stefkovich, 2016). Similarly, Smith and Fox (2019) argued that emerging leaders must
develop the practical wisdom to integrate professional expectations with evolving ethical
challenges in complex environments.
In increasingly diverse and transnational contexts, such as those navigated by
immigrant professionals, the ethic of the profession also involves negotiating across multiple
professional cultures. As Ward (2020) observed, global and multicultural classrooms reveal
the need for culturally responsive ethical reasoning that respects divergent norms while
maintaining core professional values. The ethic of the profession becomes especially relevant
for leaders operating across cultural contexts, as it encourages ethical adoptability while
maintaining alignment with both codes of ethics.
2.5.1.6 Ethic of Self-Care. The ethic of self-care is a philosophical and moral
framework that emphasizes individuals’ responsibility to nurture their own emotional,

52
intellectual, physical, and spiritual well-being. Rather than treating self-care as indulgent or
apolitical, this ethic positions it as a reflective and resistant practice, especially important for
those in positions of leadership or those impacted by systemic oppression (Webb, 2021).
Mary Astell’s (1697) early feminist writings emphasized the importance of cultivating the self
through practices such as meditation, self-regulation, and intellectual withdrawal from
material distractions. She argued that ethical living begins with the mastery of one's own
desires and passions, and that women, in particular, must resist societal customs that teach
them to devalue themselves in favour of superficial norms (Webb, 2021). Michel Foucault
(1997) later reframed self-care as an ongoing ethical project of personal autonomy and
critique. For Foucault, self-care involves cultivating independence of thought, challenging
social conditioning, and resisting the norms imposed by dominant institutions. He
emphasized that the ethical self is one who practices critical reflection and develops
alternative ways of being in the world (Foucault, 1997).
Contemporary thinkers such as Audre Lorde have extended this concept by
highlighting the political significance of self-care for those whose identities and labour are
often devalued. Lorde (1988) famously argued that self-care is not self-indulgence, but rather
self-preservation, especially for marginalized people living under systems of racism, sexism,
and heteronormativity. The ethic of self-care is not concerned with prescribing morality to
others. Instead, it invites individuals to engage in a continuous and personal journey of ethical
development. Through activities such as writing, introspection, and dialogue, individuals can
build greater self-awareness, cultivate resilience, and confront the social norms that restrict
their growth and freedom (Broad, 2015; Webb, 2021).
In summary, the ethic of self-care is a disciplined and reflective practice through
which individuals actively work on themselves to cultivate autonomy, freedom, and moral
self-development. Far from mere indulgence or retreat, it involves critical self-reflection,

53
rational inquiry, and sustained practices aimed at self-mastery and transformation (Webb,
2021). Drawing on both Astell’s and Foucault’s frameworks, this ethic emphasizes
philosophy and askesis (a practice of self-discipline or self-cultivation) as tools for care of the
self, enabling resistance to oppressive social norms and fostering feminist freedom.
2.5.1.7 Ethic of Discomfort. The ethic of discomfort is a contemporary ethical
paradigm that invites leaders, educators, and researchers to confront the unease that emerges
from critically engaging with power, identity, and social injustice. Rather than offering
closure or certainty, this ethic treats discomfort as a productive and necessary condition for
ethical reflection and transformation (Foucault, 1994; Zemblyas, 2015). Zemblyas (2015)
describes discomfort as a feeling of uneasiness that arises during the teaching and learning
process when students and educators are challenged by others who "de-centre" their
cherished beliefs and assumptions about the world (p.11). This form of pedagogical
discomfort is considered both necessary and unavoidable, as it disrupts dominant ideologies,
social norms, and habitual practices that uphold systemic inequalities. In doing so, it opens up
space for both personal and collective transformation Zemblyas (2015). Discomfort is thus
framed not only as a pedagogical and ethical condition but also as a call to embrace
vulnerability and the ambiguity of the self. It demands an ethical responsibility that extends
beyond individual intention or action and recognizes discomfort as an inescapable part of
social existence Zemblyas (2015). This paradigm draws heavily from Michel Foucault’s
(1994) notion of a critical ontology of the self, which urges individuals to never become fully
comfortable with their own assumptions and to remain constantly vigilant about how their
beliefs are shaped by dominant discourses. Zemblyas (2015) extended this concept in
educational settings, suggesting that discomfort opens turbulent ground for questioning
embedded ideologies and emotional attachments that sustain hegemonic social norms.
Through what he calls a pedagogy of discomfort, Zemblyas advocated for teaching practices

54
that compel learners to examine their values, confront privilege, and engage with emotional
tensions as part of ethical formation.
The ethical implications of this discomfort, however, are not without risk. Drawing on
Judith Butler’s work on ethical violence, Zemblyas (2015) warned that enforcing discomfort,
especially through imposed norms can result in unintended harm when students are not ready
to appropriate these values in a “living way” (p. 164). Thus, ethical discomfort is not a carte
blanche for disruption, but must be practiced with critical restraint, acknowledging the
vulnerability of the learner and the ambivalence of transformation (Butler, 2005).
In leadership contexts, particularly those involving intercultural or postcolonial
dynamics, the ethic of discomfort becomes a tool for challenging the norm and embracing
reflexive humility. Burns (2017) demonstrated how even seemingly mundane practices, such
as cosmetic labelling, can reflect racialized norms and expose participants to the unsettling
realization of complicity in broader systems of exclusion. Similarly, Wilson-Forsberg et al.
(2023) showed that discomfort experienced during international fieldwork can deepen ethical
insight and relational understanding when scaffolded through critical pedagogy, WilsonForsberg et al. (2023) referred to discomfort as the challenging feelings and experiences
students undergo when confronted with unfamiliar cultures, social injustices, and moral
complexities that unsettle their assumptions and familiar worldviews. It includes emotional
responses like guilt, anger, confusion, and disequilibrium, which prompt critical reflection
and transformation. This discomfort is not mere unease but a purposeful unsettling that
fosters ethical insight and social change by exposing students to realities that disrupt
comfortable narratives. Ultimately, the ethic of discomfort asks leaders not to avoid moral
complexity, but to stay present with its tensions.
2.5.1.8 St’at’imc Matriarchal Leadership Ethics. Secwepemcúl’ecw, the traditional
territory of the Secwepemc Nation, spans approximately 180,000 square kilometers across

55
the south-central interior of British Columbia, from the Columbia River Valley to the Fraser
River and from the upper Fraser River to the Arrow Lakes (Aird, 2017). The Secwepemc
people have inhabited this land for several thousand years (Ignace, 2008). The name
"Secwepemc" is understood to mean "following the waters as it gathers more water and flows
back down to the Pacific Ocean" (Billy, 2009) (p.1). This region is both ecologically and
culturally diverse. The Secwepemc have preserved their history, laws, and knowledge
through oral narratives passed down by elders. These stories, which reflect ancestral times,
major events, ecological relationships, and cultural practices, form a living archive that
continues to define their identity and relationship with the land (Ignace, 2008). I respectfully
acknowledge that this research is conducted on the traditional and unceded territory of
Tk̓emlúps te Secwépemc, located within the region known as Secwepemc’ulucw, which
encompasses the ancestral lands of the Secwépemc Nation.
St’at’imc matriarchal leadership ethics is an Indigenous ethical framework rooted in
the ancestral teachings, cultural practices, and intergenerational responsibilities of the
St’at’imc Nation. This leadership paradigm emphasizes accountability through relationships,
spiritual alignment, and community well-being as guided by the women of the community. It
challenges dominant models of authority by prioritizing leadership that is grounded in land,
language, and collective care rather than in hierarchical position or individual achievement
(Mixalhits'a7 & Grizzlypaws, 2024). This perspective emerges as both a reclamation and
resistance. It responds to the disruptions of colonization, particularly the imposition of
patriarchal governance through the Indian Act (Government of Canada, 1985) and residential
school systems, which displaced Indigenous women and attempted to erase matriarchal forms
of leadership. Within this ethical model, women are not only community leaders but also
cultural and spiritual caretakers. They make decisions based on understanding of kinship,

56
environment, and the long-term consequences for future generations (Mixalhits'a7 &
Grizzlypaws, 2024).
Ethical leadership from this worldview is enacted through attention to seven core
values derived from St’at’imc teachings: health, happiness, generosity, generational
continuity, compassion, strength, and quiet wisdom (Bull, 2024). These principles guide
decision-making through a strengths-based, intergenerational, and holistic lens, integrating
physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual dimensions of leadership (Bull, 2024). Leaders are
accountable not only to their communities, but also to land, ancestors, and unborn
generations. The ethic also places a strong emphasis on recognizing and nurturing individual
gifts, particularly among youth, with the aim of supporting personal growth and strengthening
the community (Mixalhits'a7 & Grizzlypaws, 2024). The St’at’imc matriarchal paradigm
offers an important decolonial lens. It expands the understanding of leadership beyond
Western traditions and highlights the importance of cultural identity, spirituality, and
collective responsibility in ethical practice.
2.3 Research Gap and Study’s Approach
The current research addresses two key gaps: (1) the lack of qualitative inquiry into
how Indian leaders understand and practice ethical leadership, and (2) the limited
understanding of how shifts in cultural norms influence leaders’ perspectives on ethical
leadership.
The review of recent studies on ethical leadership within the Indian context highlights
a dominant reliance on quantitative research methods (Goswami (2021); Mishra & Tikoria,
2021; Sharma et al., 2019). Most investigations, whether in healthcare, manufacturing,
information technology, or service sectors, use of surveys and statistical tools to assess
perceptions, behaviours, and correlations related to ethical leadership (Goswami, 2021; Jha &
Singh 2019; Saini, 2017). While these studies offer valuable quantitative data-driven insights,

57
they often overlook more nuanced, context- and culturally- relevant ethical principles and
frameworks that influence leadership behaviour. Given the complex and contextual nature of
ethical leadership, many scholars recommend investigating ethical leadership across diverse
cultural and organizational settings (Khuntia, & Suar, 2004; Mishra & Tikoria, 2021; Saini,
2017; Saini & Sengupta, 2016; Sharma et al., 2019). This highlights a significant gap in the
current literature, particularly the limited use of qualitative approaches to understand how
leaders in India perceive and enact ethical leadership.
In contrast, the literature on ethical leadership within the Canadian context and
Indigenous communities that pre-date colonization, presents a more balanced mix of
qualitative and quantitative research (Brant, 2021; Macpherson, 2024; Siegel, 2013).
However, a notable limitation remains in terms of minimal engagement with the cultural
dimensions that influence ethical leadership practices. Many of the studies reviewed,
including those by Haque and Yamoah (2021), Morin and Talbot (2023), and Siegel (2013),
adopt or refer to the widely cited definition by Brown et al. (2005), which describes ethical
leadership as “the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions
and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through twoway communication, reinforcement, and decision making” (p. 120). However, these studies
often fail to critically examine or define what constitutes “normatively appropriate” conduct,
even though such norms are likely to be shaped by cultural context. As Langlois and Lapointe
(2007) pointed out, ethical leadership is influenced by a range of contextual variables.
Therefore, there remains considerable scope to explore how cultural values, traditions, and
identities inform ethical leadership practices.
This research addresses a gap in the existing literature by offering a qualitative
analysis of whether ethical leadership is shaped by cultural context. Specifically, it examines
how Indian professionals interpret and enact ethical leadership within their home culture, and

58
how these interpretations shift when they assume leadership roles in the Canadian context. By
focusing on cross cultural comparison, the study distinguishes itself through its emphasis on
lived experiences rather than abstract theoretical models. Drawing on in depth interviews, the
research centres participant narratives to explore the moral reasoning that underpins
leadership practices. Furthermore, my dual positionality as someone who is culturally
embedded within the Indian context and an informed observer within the Canadian setting
allows for a more layered and culturally sensitive interpretation of the findings. In doing so,
the research aims to offer deeper insight into the role of culture in shaping ethical leadership
practices and interpretations across two different cultures.

59
Chapter 3: Methodology
This chapter outlines the methodology employed in this qualitative study, beginning
with a discussion of my positionality and its influence on the research process. It then
presents the qualitative research approach and explains the theoretical framework that guided
the research design and analysis. The chapter describes the data collection process, including
the use of a pre-interview worksheet and semi-structured interviews, and provides an
overview of the coding strategy. Finally, it explains how the data were analysed and
interpreted within the chosen theoretical framework.
3.1 Positionality: Self as Researcher
As a researcher, my academic and professional journey spans two countries and
disciplinary domains, shaping the lens through which I approach this inquiry. I am currently
pursuing a Master of Education degree in Canada, building on a prior academic foundation in
mechanical engineering, which includes a diploma, a bachelor’s degree, and a master’s
degree in the discipline. My professional experience includes nearly seven years as an
assistant professor in an engineering college in India, where I held several leadership roles,
including Head of the Entrepreneurship Development Cell and Head of the Training and
Placement Cell. These positions provided me with early exposure to leadership
responsibilities within an academic and culturally specific context. In addition to my
engineering background, I worked for one and a half years as an astronomy educator,
coordinating public outreach programs in my home province. Since relocating to Canada, I
have continued to engage in academic leadership through various roles, including graduate
teaching assistant, research assistant, and graduate research mentor. These cross-cultural
professional experiences have allowed me to witness, experience, and reflect upon leadership
practices in both Indian and Canadian contexts.

60
Drawing from these lived experiences, I have personally observed and navigated
cultural differences in leadership approaches. In India, leadership often involves strong
cultural grounding, deference to hierarchy, and the expectation that decisions reflect both
institutional rules and respect for culture. Solutions are often shaped by situational nuance,
personal intuition, and lived wisdom. By contrast, my experience in Canada has shown me
that leadership hierarchies are less formalized and more collaborative in nature, with
emphasis on distributed decision making, and open dialogue. These contrasts inform my
understanding of how culture shapes leadership expectations, and ethical decision making.
Given my cultural roots and professional history in India, I adopt an emic, or insider,
perspective in analysing participant narratives. In qualitative research, the emic perspective
involves understanding participants’ viewpoints and interpretations within their own social
and cultural contexts (Guzmán-Valenzuela, 2016; Mazonde & Carmichael, 2020). This
approach enhances the quality of educational research by foregrounding participants’
meanings, perspectives, and lived experiences as situated within specific cultural
environments. By adopting this perspective, I can construct detailed and nuanced
interpretations that uncover the intricate cultural dynamics, relationships, and meanings
embedded in the participants’ experiences, thereby contributing to more authentic and
contextually grounded analysis (Guzmán-Valenzuela, 2016). However, I have made a
deliberate effort to approach data analysis with reflexivity, understood as a continuous
process of self-examination and critical reflection on my own position, including personal
traits, beliefs, biases, and lived experiences, and how these may influence the research
process and outcomes (Berger, 2015). This stance contributes to the trustworthiness and
ethical soundness of qualitative inquiry (Palaganas et al., 2017). I have stayed close to
participants’ words, grounded in the transcripts, and resisted imposing interpretations that
stem solely from my personal experience. While my positionality offers contextual insight, I

61
am committed to ensuring that participants’ voices remain central, authentic, and unfiltered in
the representation of findings.
3.2 Qualitative Research Methodology
This study adopts a qualitative research methodology to examine how Indian
professionals in leadership roles interpret and experience ethical leadership across cultural
contexts. This section is divided into two main parts. The first part presents the theoretical
framework, which draws on acculturation theory and multiple ethical paradigms to guide the
inquiry. The second part outlines the data collection strategy, with a particular focus on the
use of semi-structured interviews as a primary method for gathering nuanced, contextually
grounded participant narratives.
3.2.1 Theoretical Framework
This study employs a dual theoretical framework that brings together acculturation
theory and the multiple ethical paradigms framework to analyse leadership ethics in crosscultural contexts. Acculturation theory examines the process through which individuals or
groups adjust to a new cultural environment, negotiating between retaining aspects of their
original culture and adopting elements of the host culture (Berry, 2017). This theory is
particularly relevant for understanding how Indian immigrant leaders in Canada navigate
cultural boundaries in their ethical decision-making. The multiple ethical paradigms is a
conceptual framework that employs several distinct ethical lenses or perspectives to analyse
and resolve ethical dilemmas. This approach recognizes that no single ethical theory or
paradigm fully captures the complexity of moral issues (Hoare et al., 2024). To complement
this cultural lens, the study also draws upon the Bird’s Eye View Model of ethical paradigms,
adopted from Hoare et al. (2024). This model encompasses eight distinct ethical paradigms:
the ethic of justice, the ethic of care, the ethic of critique, the ethic of discomfort, the ethic of
the profession, the ethic of community, the ethic of self-care, and St’at’imc matriarchal

62
leadership ethics. Each of these paradigms offers a unique perspective on how leaders
understand and respond to ethical dilemmas, moving from internal self-reflection to broader
considerations of community, equity, and institutional responsibility. By integrating these two
frameworks, the study aims to explore how Indian leaders in both India and Canada construct
their ethical worldviews, and how cultural adaptation influences these constructions in
leadership practice.
3.2.1.1 Acculturation. In this study, acculturation will be used as an analytical lens to
examine how Indian immigrant professionals in Canada experience and interpret ethical
leadership. Building on the work of Liang et al. (2021), who explored how Chinese
immigrant professionals’ implicit leadership theories are influenced by their acculturation
experiences in Australia, this research similarly investigates whether and how sustained
intercultural contact reshapes participants’ ethical decision-making frameworks. Liang et al.’s
study demonstrated that acculturation could lead to culturally dependent shifts in leadership
perceptions, such as moving from authoritarian to empowering leadership styles and fostering
a stronger co-production of leadership. My study adopts this premise by exploring how
Indian leaders’ cultural backgrounds and acculturation experiences influence the ethical
paradigms they draw upon when responding to moral dilemmas. Rather than focusing solely
on changes in ethical paradigm, I will use acculturation to understand how cultural transitions
shape leaders' ethical reasoning, values, and interpretations of right and wrong in
multicultural settings.
3.2.1.2 Multiple Ethical Paradigms Framework. The second theoretical framework
employed in this study is the multiple ethical paradigms. It is a theoretical model that
acknowledges the complexity and nuance of ethical decision making by drawing on a range
of moral perspectives. Rather than relying on a single ethical orientation, this approach
encourages leaders to examine dilemmas through multiple lenses, each offering distinct

63
values, priorities, and modes of reasoning (Hoare et al., 2024). This framework draws on a
broad body of scholarship (Chryssides & Kaler, 1996; Engsjö-Lindgren, 2021; Nevarez &
Wood, 2014; Shapiro and Stefkovich, 2016) and has been adopted in this research from
Hoare et al.’s (2024) work on ethical leadership in higher education. Their work introduces
the Bird’s Eye View Model, a conceptual tool that enables leaders to reflect on their values,
recognize the ethical nature of their choices, and draw on multiple paradigms as they navigate
complex decisions. Together, these paradigms provide a multi-faceted approach to ethical
analysis that reflects the lived complexity of leadership practice and encourages leaders to be
flexible, contextually aware, and self-reflective in their moral reasoning. As noted by Shapiro
and Stefkovich (2016), these paradigms assist leaders in identifying the moral principles they
most frequently rely on and invite them to consider alternative ways of interpreting and
resolving ethical dilemmas. By using multiple ethical frames, leaders can engage in deeper
reflexivity, recognize competing obligations, and consider broader consequences in their
decision making. Similarly, Wood and Hilton (2012) emphasized that the integration of
ethical paradigms enables leaders to construct and evaluate multiple courses of action,
thereby aligning theory with practical moral reasoning in real-world situations.
The multiple paradigms featured in this study include the ethics of justice, care,
critique, community, self-care, discomfort, profession, and St’at’imc matriarchal leadership.
These ethical lenses offer diverse orientations: for example, the ethic of justice emphasizes
fairness and rules, while the ethic of care centres on relationships and empathy. The ethic of
critique interrogates power and structural inequality, and the ethic of profession draws from
formal codes and standards. The ethic of discomfort encourages leaders to confront internal
tensions and systemic complicity. The inclusion of St’at’imc matriarchal ethics, rooted in
Indigenous knowledge and relational responsibility, further expands the ethical imagination.

64
Together, these paradigms offer a multi-perspective framework that reflects the diversity and
moral complexity of leadership across settings (Hoare et al., 2024).
Although the adopted framework’s lies in educational leadership, it is adoptable to
broader leadership contexts. The rationale for this broader application lies in the focus of the
study, which is not on the institutional or professional structure in which the participants
operate, but rather on the moral reasoning processes that guide their decisions. Ethical
dilemmas are not exclusive to educational settings. The way leaders respond to these
dilemmas, what they prioritize, what values they draw upon, and how they justify their
decisions are questions that transcend disciplinary boundaries. This study uses the multiple
ethical paradigms framework to analyse how leaders interpret and respond to ethical tension
in their day-to-day roles, regardless of field. Furthermore, ethical paradigms have been
extended to other fields such as healthcare, business, corporate leadership, and community
organizing. For instance, the ethic of care is frequently referenced in nursing (Woods, 2011);
the ethic of justice is fundamental in corporate compliance (Simola, 2003); and the ethic of
self-care is widely applied in healthcare (Linton & Koonmen, 2020). These examples support
the argument that the multiple ethical paradigms model has conceptual relevance beyond its
initial disciplinary home.
The rationale for using multiple paradigms in this study is grounded in the recognition
that ethical leadership is shaped by cultural, social, and institutional complexity (Hoare et al.,
2024). Numerous scholars have argued that no single ethical lens is sufficient to account for
the diverse perspectives and competing obligations that leaders navigate in multicultural
societies. By drawing on multiple ethical paradigms, this study acknowledges that ethical
reasoning is plural, dynamic, and context specific. This approach is particularly suited to
cross-cultural research, where concepts of ethical leadership are informed by cultural identity,
migration experiences, and ongoing negotiation between value systems.

65
3.2.1.2.1 Bird’s Eye View Model. The multiple ethical paradigms framework and the
Bird’s Eye View Model of ethical leadership are closely interconnected. The multiple ethical
paradigms framework offers diverse ethical lenses for analysing leadership dilemmas,
encouraging leaders to approach ethical decisions thoughtfully and holistically (Hoare et al.,
2024; Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016). Rather than relying on a single ethical perspective, this
framework promotes multi-dimensional thinking to help leaders navigate complex, culturally
situated moral challenges. Complementing this, the Bird’s Eye View Model enables leaders to
adopt a broader perspective, viewing ethical leadership as an iterative, reflective process in
which self-reflection, collective accountability, and contextual adaptation are central (Hoare
et al., 2024). Together, these frameworks guide this study’s exploration of ethical leadership,
supporting a culturally sensitive and conceptually grounded analysis. This study is the first to
apply all eight ethical paradigms of the Bird’s Eye View Model to the analysis of ethical
leadership narratives, offering a more nuanced and inclusive ethical lens. The eight ethics are
presented below:
1. Ethic of justice
2. Ethic of critique
3. Ethic of care
4. Ethic of community
5. Ethic of profession
6. Ethic of self-care
7. Ethic of discomfort
8. St’at’imc matriarchal leadership ethics (Indigenous perspective)
Table 1
Multiple Ethical Paradigm Summary
Ethical Lens
Ethic of justice

Description
The ethic of justice centres on the protection of individual rights and freedoms,
adherence to legal systems, and the promotion of fairness (Frick et al., 2012). Beckner

66

Ethic of critique

Ethic of care

Ethic of
community

Ethic of
profession

Ethic of self-care

Ethic of
discomfort

St’at’imc
matriarchal
leadership ethics

(2004) described this ethical stance as grounded in formal rules, aiming to resolve moral
issues through established laws and guiding principles. Those who follow this approach
emphasize fairness, neutrality, and equal treatment under universally accepted standards
and human rights legislation. There is a strong emphasis on consistency and the equal
application of individual rights. Every person is treated identically, with justice
administered in a uniform manner. The ethic of justice considers questions such as: Is
there a law, right, or policy that relates to a particular case? If there is a law, right, or
policy, should it be enforced? And if there is not a law, right, or policy, should there be
one? (p.14)
The ethic of critique seeks to challenge the societal structures that perpetuate inequality.
Leaders guided by this perspective view legal and institutional systems as tools
historically shaped by those in power to preserve dominance and suppress marginalized
groups (Berges Puyo, 2022). Their goal is to question existing norms and actively work
toward transforming educational and social systems to better serve underrepresented and
disadvantaged populations.
The ethic of care emphasizes empathy, compassion, and responsiveness as central to
moral decision making. It is rooted in relationships, aiming to foster connection and
trust. Leaders guided by this ethic focus on supporting the dignity, welfare, and best
interests of those they serve, and they are motivated to act. Leading with care requires
more than concern for others; it involves challenging established systems and
advocating for change that is both meaningful and just (Noddings, 1984).
The ethic of community is grounded in the idea that leadership is a shared responsibility.
Rather than relying on a single visionary or transformational figure, this perspective
asserts that achieving social justice within institutions depends on the collective efforts
of all. This ethical approach repositions moral responsibility from the individual to the
broader community, emphasizing that leadership should be distributed across its
members (Furman, 2004). It calls for individuals to cultivate interpersonal and
collaborative skills, such as teamwork, continuous dialogue, and the ability to navigate
complex and often polarized discussions. Moreover, the ethic of community is not static,
or outcome driven; rather, it is an evolving process shaped by the active involvement of
all the stakeholders.
The ethic of the profession offers a comprehensive framework for ethical decision
making by integrating the principles of justice, critique, and care with the leader’s own
personal and professional ethical commitments. In educational settings, this ethic
prioritizes the well-being and success of students as the central concern in all ethical
considerations. It involves leaders formulating and examining their own professional
codes of ethics in light of their personal ethical beliefs and the standards set forth by the
profession (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016).
The ethic of self-care centres on the individual to challenge and disrupt prevailing
ideologies. It calls on leaders to critically examine and resist the forces of power that
shape and standardize behaviour and identity by interrogating dominant historical
narratives and accepted truths. Practicing this ethic involves consistent self-examination
of how one is shaped by societal pressures and institutional expectations. Rather than
imposing moral standards on others, it promotes personal ethical growth and rejects
authoritarianism. This approach values the moral significance of sustaining one's own
well-being and inner strength (Webb, 2021).
The ethic of discomfort is rooted in a commitment to confront and question prevailing
systems and narratives that sustain injustice, including racism, sexism, and other forms
of discrimination. Leaders who engage with this ethic actively push themselves and
others to critically reflect on their own beliefs and assumptions. This process often
involves stepping into the experiences of marginalized individuals, even if symbolically,
to foster empathy and broaden one’s perspective. Unlike frameworks that aim to avoid
discomfort, this ethic embraces it as essential to moral and ethical growth (Zemblyas,
2015).
St’at’imc Matriarchal leadership ethics affirm the central role of Indigenous women in
guiding decisions related to community well-being, cultural continuity, language
preservation, and relationships with the Land. Leaders who embody this ethic uplift and
support youth by drawing on ancestral knowledge, the guidance of Elders, and the
teachings of the Land. This perspective holds that children possess inherent goodness
and potential, which must be recognized and cultivated. Core principles of this ethic

67
include building consensus, passing knowledge across generations, preserving cultural
identity, and upholding the right of Indigenous peoples to self-determination
(Mixalhits'a7 & Grizzlypaws, 2024).

3.2.2 Semi Structured Interview
The study’s methodological foundation and conceptual framing are adapted from the
work of Liang et al. (2021), who investigated the impact of acculturation on implicit
leadership theories among Chinese professionals in Australia and China. Drawing on their
comparative and qualitative approach, this research similarly examines how acculturation
shapes leadership perceptions, with a specific focus on Indian leaders operating across two
national and cultural contexts. Like the original study, this research uses semi structured
interviews to explore how migration and exposure to new cultural settings influence
individuals’ ethical leadership values and expectations. This study adopts a qualitative
research design to explore the complex and culturally situated phenomenon of ethical
leadership. As Creswell and Creswell (2022) explained, qualitative inquiry is especially
appropriate when the aim is to understand how and why certain processes unfold, particularly
those that are embedded within social, cultural, and institutional contexts. Ethical leadership,
as examined through the framework of multiple ethical paradigms (Hoare et al., 2024), is
inherently nuanced and influenced by personal values, lived experience, and sociocultural
norms. This research investigates how Indian professionals both in India and as immigrants in
Canada perceive and enact ethical leadership while navigating distinct cultural environments.
These questions call for a research design that can engage meaningfully with variation,
complexity, and participants’ perspectives, making qualitative inquiry the most suitable
approach (Merriam, 2002).
Acculturation theory and multiple ethical paradigms offer a guiding lens through
which these cultural shifts are analysed, emphasizing the adaptations that occur as individuals
move between heritage and host cultures. Acculturation refers to the changes in cultural
patterns that emerge when groups come into continuous and direct contact. At the individual

68
level, this process includes shifts in value orientations, behavioural norms, practices, personal
traits, and institutional frameworks, with particular emphasis on evolving cultural values
(Barker, 2017). While Liang et al. (2021) approached leadership from a follower-centred
perspective, focusing on the evolution of implicit leadership beliefs, this study broadens the
scope to examine how leaders themselves engage with ethical reasoning and moral decision
making. The comparative design, the attention to cultural dynamics, data collection and the
application of acculturation as a theoretical anchor are key methodological components that
have been adapted from Liang et al. (2021) to suit the distinct professional and cultural
realities of my participant group.
One key difference between my research and the study conducted by Liang et al.
(2021) lies in the approach to data analysis. While their study primarily followed a more
interpretive thematic approach, my research adopts a hybrid process of deductive and
inductive thematic analysis (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006). The deductive component,
also referred to as directed qualitative content analysis (Armat et al., 2018), is particularly
suitable when there is an existing theoretical framework or prior research that informs the
analytical process. In deductive coding, the researcher begins with pre-established categories
derived from theory and applies them to the data, reflecting a structured and theory-driven
mode of reasoning (Assarroudi et al., 2018; Armat et al., 2018). In this study, the analysis is
guided by Hoare et al.’s (2024) multiple ethical paradigms framework Bird’s Eye view. This
framework provides eight ethical paradigms that serve as initial coding categories to examine
whether and how these paradigms are reflected in participants’ responses. Thus, the analysis
involves a deductive process using these predefined ethical lenses. This approach enhances
analytical efficiency, reduces ambiguity, and enables systematic data handling (Armat et al.,
2018). Furthermore, deductive coding facilitates connections between empirical findings and
theoretical constructs, supporting the refinement or extension of existing theory (Fereday &

69
Muir-Cochrane, 2006). Simultaneously, Braun and Clarke’s (2006) reflexive thematic
analysis framework is employed to incorporate an inductive dimension. This approach allows
themes to emerge organically from the data, enabling the identification of patterns and
meanings grounded in participants’ lived experiences. Inductive coding is inherently datadriven and does not rely on preconceived categories, which enhances authenticity and the
potential to uncover novel insights (Armat et al., 2018). The integration of both deductive and
inductive strategies enriches the analysis by balancing theoretical structure with empirical
openness and interpretive depth (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006).
3.2.2.1 Participants. This study involved Indian professionals in leadership roles
from two distinct demographic groups: Indian-based professionals currently residing and
working in India, and Indian immigrant professionals living and working in Canada. All
participants voluntarily provided informed consent prior to participation. My study received
Ethics Board approval from the research board of Thompson Rivers University. The sample
was purposefully selected to ensure diversity across industries, disciplines, gender identities,
levels of experience, age, and, for immigrant participants, time spent in Canada. This
variation was intended to capture the cultural and institutional complexity of ethical
leadership experiences within and across national contexts.
To be eligible for participation, all individuals, regardless of location, were required
to be between the ages of 25 and 40, have a minimum of five years of professional work
experience in their respective country, and at least one year of experience in a formal
leadership role. In addition, participants were required to express a willingness to participate
and provide informed consent. These eligibility criteria were designed to ensure that
participants had sufficient professional and leadership experience to reflect meaningfully on
ethical decision making in their respective contexts. This approach aligns with the participant
inclusion criteria of Liang et al. (2021), from which this study draws inspiration, while

70
adding specific leadership-related requirements to strengthen the relevance of participants’
reflections.
Additional inclusion criteria applied specifically to Indian immigrant participants: (1)
that they be currently residing in Canada, (2) have lived in Canada for at least five years, and
(3) have held a leadership role within the Canadian workforce for a minimum of one year.
Furthermore, immigrant participants were required to have immigrated at or after the age of
18 to ensure that their formative educational and early professional experiences occurred
within the Indian cultural context. These conditions were established to maintain alignment
between the participants' cultural grounding and their leadership experiences within Canadian
systems.
To maintain consistency in the cultural relevance and analytical scope of the study,
individuals were excluded if they immigrated to Canada before completing high school (that
is, before the age of 18), had resided in Canada for fewer than five years without leadership
experience, were not currently living in Canada, or, in the case of Indian professionals, had
lived and worked outside of India for more than one year. These exclusions ensured that
participants had stable, culturally situated professional experiences within the intended
national context of analysis.
A total of ten participants were recruited for this study, with the aim of achieving a
relatively equal distribution between Indian-based professionals and Indian immigrant
professionals in Canada. This sample size was considered appropriate for a qualitative study,
offering sufficient depth for thematic analysis while remaining manageable. Participants were
recruited using a combination of purposeful and snowball sampling strategies. Purposeful
sampling ensured that the selected individuals met the study’s eligibility criteria, while
snowball sampling, initiated through the researcher’s academic and professional networks,
facilitated the identification of additional qualified participants through referral (Naderifar et

71
al., 2017; Merriam, 2002). Recruitment was carried out via email invitations, which outlined
the purpose of the study, the nature of participation, and the estimated time commitment
involved (see Appendix 1).
Each participant was asked to allocate approximately six to 10 minutes to review the
research overview and sign the informed consent form. Semi structured interviews were then
conducted, lasting approximately 45 to 60 minutes. To enhance the credibility of the data,
each participant also engaged in a member checking process, lasting 15 to 20 minutes, during
which they reviewed and confirmed the accuracy of their interview transcripts. To ensure
accessibility and linguistic comfort, participants were offered the option to complete their
interviews in English, Hindi, or Gujarati. To protect participant confidentiality, pseudonyms
are used throughout this study in place of real names. Each pseudonym is accompanied by the
title of the participant's professional role to retain contextual relevance. This approach
ensures anonymity while preserving the analytical richness necessary for understanding the
participants’ leadership experiences and perspectives. This approach serves the dual purpose
of maintaining participant confidentiality while providing readers with contextual clarity
regarding each participant’s leadership perspective. Referring to participants by their
positions allows for a richer understanding of the nuances in their ethical reasoning, shaped
by the professional environments in which they operate. This method preserves anonymity
without compromising interpretive depth. The following table provides basic information
about all participants, including their professional role, country of residence, years of
professional experience, and years in a leadership position.
Table 1
Summary of Participants
Participant
(Pseudonym)
Pavan

Job Tittle
Operational
excellence
engineer

Demographic
Group
Indian leader in
India.

Description
He is working in the pharmaceutical industry as an
operational excellence engineer. He is 34 years old and
has seven years of professional experience, including

72
Participant
(Pseudonym)

Job Tittle

Demographic
Group

Ravi

Principal of
Industrial
Training
Institute (ITI)

Indian leader in
India.

Kiran

Executive
engineer

Indian leader in
India.

Hemant

Transport
business owner

Indian leader in
India.

Ritu

School principal

Indian leader in
India.

Taha

Administrator
of a religious
institution

Indian immigrant
leader in Canada

Description
two years in a leadership role. He holds a PhD in lean
manufacturing. His job focuses on improving
processes, ensuring compliance, reducing waste, and
driving continuous improvement across manufacturing
and operational systems. He defines ethical leadership
as making decisions that reduce the problems faced by
his workers, emphasizing empathy, efficiency, and
long-term sustainability in organizational practices.
He works as the principal of an industrial training
institution in India. At 34 years of age, he has twelve
years of professional experience, including three years in
a formal leadership role. He holds a master’s degree in
mechanical engineering with a specialization in
automobile engineering. In his current position, he
oversees vocational and technical education programs
focused on developing skilled professionals. His
understanding of ethical leadership centres on
collaboration and the efficient use of limited resources to
achieve collective goals.
He works as an executive engineer in the water supply
department of a provincial government in India. He is 37
years old and has fourteen years of professional
experience, including seven years in a leadership role. He
holds a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering and
currently serves as the head of a department responsible
for material procurement, vendor policy formulation, and
inspection processes across all water supply offices in the
province. His department also manages the maintenance
of government vehicles. He defines ethical leadership as
a commitment to serving his department to the best of his
ability, with a focus on accountability, dedicated service,
and responsible governance.
He is the owner of a small transport business in India. At
36 years old, he has twelve years of professional
experience, including five years in a leadership role. He
holds a diploma as his highest educational qualification.
In his role, he manages the daily operations of the
business, coordinating logistics, client relations, and the
work of his drivers. He describes ethical leadership as
fostering smooth and respectful interactions between
himself, his clients, and his drivers, ensuring trust,
reliability, and fairness in all aspects of the business.
She serves as a primary school principal in a tribal region
of India. She is 40 years old and has fifteen years of
professional experience, including six years in a
leadership role. Her academic background includes a
Master of Arts and a Bachelor of Education degree. She
currently leads a school in a socio-culturally diverse
setting, where she defines ethical leadership as the
practice of creating an environment in which every
individual feels included, valued, and respected.
He has been working in Canada for the past fourteen
years and currently serves as an administrator of a
religious institution that supports a diverse community
comprising members from approximately forty-five
nationalities. He is 40 years old and holds a master’s
degree in physiotherapy. With seven years of leadership
experience, he brings a nuanced understanding of cross-

73
Participant
(Pseudonym)

Job Tittle

Demographic
Group

Siya

Assistant store
manager

Indian immigrant
leader in Canada

Sachin

IT coordinator

Indian immigrant
leader in Canada

Abhi

Operations
manager

Indian immigrant
leader in Canada

Rishi

Team
supervisor

Indian immigrant
leader in Canada

Description
cultural leadership and organizational coordination. He
defines ethical leadership as the alignment between a
leader’s goals and the overarching mission of the
organization they serve, emphasizing integrity, shared
purpose, and cultural sensitivity.
She has been living and working in Canada for the past
five years and currently holds the position of assistant
store manager. She is 38 years old and holds a master’s
degree in business education. In India, she previously
owned and managed a small stock broking firm
franchise. Her Canadian work experience spans five
years, including one year in a leadership role. She defines
ethical leadership as the ability to inspire team members
to work with full dedication toward the goals of the
institution, highlighting motivation, responsibility, and
alignment with organizational values.
He is 30 years old and has been living in Canada for the
past nine years. He works as an IT coordinator at an IT
management company, with nine years of professional
experience, including three years in a leadership role. In
his current position, he supervises a team of five people,
managing work distribution, facilitating coordination,
and addressing team members’ queries. He emphasizes
transparency and collaboration as key aspects of ethical
leadership, believing these principles are essential for
building trust, enhancing accountability, and supporting
effective team dynamics.
He is 30 years old and has been living in Canada for the
past six years. He currently works as an operations
manager in an automotive company, with six years of
overall professional experience and two years in a
leadership role. He holds a master's degree in computer
science. His position involves overseeing operations in a
warehouse setting, where he manages both codingrelated tasks and robotics integration. In addition, he
works closely with unionized labour, balancing technical
responsibilities with people management. He reports to
two managers, one hierarchical manager at the
warehouse and a functional manager overseeing the
North American supply chain. He views ethical
leadership as going beyond task management,
emphasizing that leadership shapes employees’
workplace experiences and influences their career paths
through mentorship and guidance. Although he has been
described as rigid due to his strong moral compass, he
sees himself as a growing leader, committed to learning,
self-reflection, and adapting as he continues to develop in
his role.
He is 35 years old and has been living in Canada for the
past six years. He currently works as a team supervisor in
a financial services firm, with six years of total work
experience in Canada and two years of leadership
experience. He holds a Master of Business
Administration (MBA) degree. In his current role, he is
responsible for overseeing a team of five employees,
allocating work, providing training, ensuring their
confidence, and understanding of financial products,
resolving client queries, and managing interpersonal

74
Participant
(Pseudonym)

Job Tittle

Demographic
Group

Description
conflicts within the team. He defines ethical leadership as
being deeply team-oriented, emphasizing support,
accountability, and shared success. He believes that
leadership is not about managing people but about
helping them grow, standing by them in both success and
failure, and taking full responsibility for the team’s
outcomes.

3.2.3 Data Collection and Analysis
This study employed a two-phase data collection approach consisting of a PreInterview Worksheet and a Semi-Structured Interview. The first phase involved a PreInterview Worksheet designed as a pre-interview activity to gather demographic and surface
level data before conducting semi-structured interviews. Pre interview activities are
recognized for enhancing memory recall, self-expression, participant autonomy, and
interview quality (Ellis et al., 2011). In the first phase, each participant completed a PreInterview Worksheet (Appendix 2), which captured basic demographic and professional
background information along with initial reflections on ethical leadership. The decision to
include a Pre-Interview Worksheet was informed by Kristanto (2020), who employed a threestep data collection process involving a reflection phase, a questionnaire phase, and an
interview phase. That study examined the impact of technology-based peer assessment in a
Statistical Methods course. Drawing from that model, this study combined the first two
phases into a single worksheet that achieved dual goals: collecting background information
and prompting early reflection on ethical leadership. Starting the interview with a completed
pre-interview activity provided a tangible reference point for conversation. This helped the
interview proceed more smoothly, remain focused, and become more engaging for both the
participant and the researcher (Ellis et al., 2011).
In the second phase, participants took part in a semi-structured interview, interviews
of all Indian leaders in India were conducted virtual platforms and for Canadian cohort the

75
interviews where three interview where taken in person and two conducted on virtual
platform. Each interview lasted approximately 45 to 60 minutes, with the option to use
English, Hindi, or Gujarati to ensure linguistic comfort. Two interviews in India were taken
in English language and two interviews in Gujarati and one in in Hindi. Whereas all
interviews in the Canadian cohort were conducted in English.
Interviews were audio-recorded with participant consent and transcribed verbatim
manually. Some filler words (e.g., “like” and “hmmm”) were removed during transcription to
improve clarity without altering the meaning of participants' responses. After transcription, a
member-check process was implemented, allowing participants to verify the accuracy of their
responses and make any necessary clarifications or additions. Member checks were
incorporated in this study to ensure the accurate representation of participants' perspectives
and experiences, which is central to the aims of this qualitative inquiry (Thomas, 2017). This
process is valuable as it prioritizes participant voice and authenticity and provides an
opportunity to seek clarification or elaboration on emerging themes (Thomas, 2017). By
inviting participants to review and comment on preliminary interpretations, member checks
contributed to the overall credibility and ethical integrity of the research (Thomas, 2017). The
interview questions were adapted from Liang et al. (2021) and modified to align with the
Bird’s Eye View model of multiple ethical paradigms developed by Hoare et al. (2024). The
revised interview protocol (Appendix 3) was designed to prompt participants to reflect on
ethical dilemmas they had encountered, the moral reasoning behind their decisions, and, for
Canadian participants, how migration had influenced their views on leadership ethics.
For data analysis, this study employed a deductive qualitative content analysis
approach, appropriate for research guided by an existing conceptual framework (Armat et al.,
2018). The eight ethical paradigms from the Bird’s Eye View model: justice, care, critique,
community, self-care, discomfort, profession, and St’at’imc matriarchal leadership served as

76
initial coding categories. These were used to identify which ethical lenses were evident in
participant narratives. To complement the theoretically informed deductive approach, I
applied Braun and Clarke’s (2006) reflexive thematic analysis framework. While my coding
was guided by pre-established ethical paradigms from the Bird’s Eye View Model, the
analysis remained reflexive, allowing for interpretation and deeper meaning-making beyond
the initial deductive structure. Instead of creating new codes, I began with the eight ethical
lenses as my primary coding categories. I conducted the coding manually using an Excel
sheet, organizing data excerpts under each ethical lens to enable systematic analysis while
allowing for nuanced interpretation within each category. I first divided the interview data
into two main cohorts: Indian leaders based in India and Indian immigrant leaders based in
Canada. This initial categorization helped preserve contextual clarity during analysis. I then
reviewed each interview individually, identifying the ethical dilemmas described by
participants and closely analysing the moral reasoning they used to navigate those dilemmas.
For each dilemma, I assessed which ethical lens such as care, justice, or critique, best aligned
with the participant’s reasoning. I created a table for each cohort, consisting of eight columns
corresponding to the ethical paradigms. For every dilemma, I recorded the aligned ethical
lens in the appropriate column. For example, while describing how he addressed an ethical
issue regarding employee lateness, a Canada-based Information Technology (IT) Coordinator
stated: “When an intern struggled with punctuality due to his academic workload, I allowed a
30-minute grace period, recognizing his past dedication and balancing organizational rules
with personal empathy.” This response demonstrated empathy, responsiveness, and
attentiveness to the intern’s individual needs, this is a core features of the ethic of care
(Gilligan, 1982). Therefore, during coding, I placed this instance in the Canadian cohort table
under the column labelled ethic of care. It is important to note that several ethical dilemmas
aligned with more than one ethical lens, meaning they could be interpreted and coded under

77
multiple categories. This overlap reflects the complexity and multidimensionality of ethical
decision-making. The nuances of these overlapping codes are discussed in greater detail in
the following chapter. By the end of the analysis, I had two completed tables: one for the
Indian cohort and another for the Canadian cohort each mapping participant responses to the
eight ethical paradigms. This method allowed for a systematic yet context-sensitive
comparison of how ethical leadership is enacted and interpreted across cultural contexts.
3.3 Ethics Approval
The Human Research Ethics proposal for this study was submitted to the Office of
Research Services/Office of Research Ethics at Thompson Rivers University on August 1,
2024. A request for revision was received on September 12, 2024, and the revised application
was submitted on September 20, 2024. Final ethics approval was granted on September 23,
2024 (see Appendix 4).

78
Chapter 4: Findings
This chapter presents the ethical narratives of Indian professionals in leadership
positions, drawing from in depth interviews across public and private sectors in both India
and Canada. The chapter brings forward the lived realities of leaders as they navigate
complex ethical dilemmas shaped by cultural values, institutional expectations, and personal
beliefs. Their stories are organized according to eight ethical paradigms: Ethic of Justice,
Ethic of Care, Ethic of Critique, Ethic of Community, Ethic of Self Care, Ethic of Profession,
Ethic of Discomfort, and St’at’imc matriarchal leadership. Each of these ethics serves as a
guiding perspective through which ethical reasoning is expressed and practiced. Within each
paradigm, major themes are explored using the participants’ own words, showing how ethical
leadership emerges through thoughtful decision making, cultural sensitivity, and moral
strength. This chapter does not seek to generalize but rather to reveal the depth and
complexity of ethical practice as it is experienced, questioned, and demonstrated in real
leadership situations. The aim of this research is to provide richly detailed interpretive
accounts of cultural practices that capture not only what people do, but also what their actions
mean within cultural contexts and specific social realities.
4.1 Summary of Ethical Paradigms Across Cohorts
The following table presents a consolidated overview of the key findings from
interviews with Indian professionals working in leadership positions in India and Canada.
The table is organized according to the seven ethical paradigms. For each paradigm, the table
highlights how it was demonstrated by participants in both cohorts, along with representative
quotes and brief contextual explanations. This summary is intended to provide a visual
reference for the reader and should not be viewed as a replacement for the detailed thematic
analysis that follows. Many of the narratives shared by participants relate to more than one
ethical paradigm, which reflects the complexity and interconnected nature of ethical

79
leadership. It is important to note that no evidence was found demonstrating the use of the
Ethic of Discomfort or St’at’imc Matriarchal Leadership by the participants. For this reason,
these two ethical paradigms are not included in the summary table.
To synthesize and compare the presence of each ethical paradigm, a summary table
was developed. Each row in the table corresponds to a specific ethical paradigms degree of
evidence was calculated using a standardized scale ranging from zero to five, with five
representing the strongest evidence and zero indicating no evidence. This score reflects the
extent to which participants across both cohorts demonstrated each ethical paradigm.
Specifically, a score of five indicates strong evidence, meaning all participants demonstrated
the ethic in question. A score of four indicates moderate to strong evidence, with
approximately 80% of participants demonstrating the ethic. A score of three represents weak
to mixed evidence, with around 60% of participants demonstrating it. A score of two
indicates weak evidence, with approximately 40% of participants demonstrating the ethic.
Finally, a score of zero indicates no evidence of that ethical paradigm among the participants.
This score was derived by summing the number of participants from each cohort who
demonstrated the ethical paradigm in question, then dividing the total by two. For example, if
five participants in the India-based cohort and five participants in the Canada-based cohort
exhibited a particular ethic, the total would be ten, resulting in a degree of evidence score of
five (ten divided by two). If two participants in India and three in Canada demonstrated a
specific ethic, the total would be five, yielding a degree of evidence score of 2.5. A score of
2.5 indicates mixed evidence, meaning roughly half of the participants demonstrated that
particular ethical paradigm. This method offers a structured and comparative overview of
how ethical paradigms were represented across both cultural contexts. It allows for a
consistent and transparent assessment of patterns in ethical reasoning among participants,
thereby supporting a more nuanced analysis of the findings.

80
Table 2
Summary of Ethical Paradigm Representation Across Cohorts
Evidence in
Leadership
in India
(e.g., 4/5
participants)

Evidence in
Leadership
in Canada
(e.g., 4/5
participants)

Degree of
Evidence
All
Together

Ethic of
Justice

4

4

Moderate
to Strong

Ethic of
Care

5

3

Moderate
to Strong

Ethical
Paradigm

Interview Data
Operations manager (Canada based Cohort): While introducing a new technology at work, I created two performance sheets, one
including idle time and one excluding it, to transparently show the full picture of worker efficiency. I shared both with upper
management to ensure fairness toward both supervisors and workers, allowing them to make an informed decision without bias. This
approach was fair to supervisors because it acknowledged the way they had traditionally calculated performance, and it was fair to
workers by accurately representing the realistic conditions under which tasks were performed.
Executive Engineer (India based Cohort): I chose to follow a path that preserved procedural justice and protected my employee. I
informed my superiors about the request and explained that we could not act unless they issued a direct order. Once I received a verbal
instruction from my superior, I asked my team member to proceed. This way, I ensured that our actions remained within the chain of
command, in accordance with legal and institutional frameworks. I refused to allow informal political influence to override official
procedures, but I also ensured that responsibility for the final decision rested with the appropriate authority.
Transport business owner (India based Cohort): By redefining procedural roles and responsibilities through collaborative agreements, I
was able to uphold fairness and transparency in our business practices. For me, it was important to ensure that every stakeholder, be it
the driver, the consigner, or the consignee is treated justly, and that no one bears a disproportionate share of operational burdens.
School Principal (India based Cohort): We ensured fairness by establishing clear rules, objective evaluation criteria, and accountability
mechanisms. By doing so, we not only restored trust in the process but also strengthened the educational value of the Child Parliament,
teaching students that fairness and transparency are essential principles in any leadership or governance system.
Administrator of religious institution (Canada based Cohort): My primary responsibility is to ensure fairness and equal treatment. I
must look beyond individual emotions or cultural pressures and instead base my decisions on rules that can be applied universally. As I
often explain, “You cannot do one thing for one person and deny it to another.” Upholding consistent standards avoids favouritism and
reinforces credibility.
Team Supervisor (Canada based Cohort): To maintain fairness and transparency, we also decided to set a time limit on how many
minutes an employee could be late. If someone exceeded this benchmark, a certain pay deduction would apply. Although I personally
do not believe in punishment and prefer to focus on positive motivation, we understood that it was important to have clear boundaries
to prevent the perception that some employees were taking advantage of leniency. This step reassured other employees that standards
of fairness were being maintained, ensuring that the policies were consistent and just for all.
IT Coordinator (Canada based Cohort): When an intern struggled with punctuality due to his academic workload, I allowed a 30minute grace period, recognizing his past dedication and balancing organizational rules with personal empathy.
Operations manager (Canada based Cohort): Beyond the legal obligations, my decision was also motivated by a deep concern for the
well-being of my team. Although I was new and aware that challenging the standard operating procedure could expose me to
professional risks, I prioritized the safety and dignity of the workers. I understood that removing their access to essential safety gear,
even temporarily, would place them in vulnerable positions and signal a disregard for their health and safety. By reordering the task
list, I ensured that the workers could perform their duties safely up until the very last stage of the warehouse transfer. I recognize that
protecting my team's immediate physical safety was as important as meeting operational targets.
Team Supervisor (Canada based Cohort): I had a team member who was excellent at her job. She was highly efficient and consistently
one of the top performers. However, she struggled with consistently arriving on time in the mornings. I initiated one-on-one

81
Evidence in
Leadership
in India
(e.g., 4/5
participants)

Evidence in
Leadership
in Canada
(e.g., 4/5
participants)

Degree of
Evidence
All
Together

Ethic of
Critique

3

2

Weak to
Mixed

Ethic of
Community

4

4

Moderate
to Strong

Ethical
Paradigm

Interview Data
conversations to better understand the root cause of her lateness. Through these discussions, we discovered that her tardiness stemmed
from a tendency toward disorganization rather than any malicious intent. Although her intentions were not harmful, I recognized that
her actions were unintentionally impacting the broader team dynamics. Throughout this process, my priority was to address the
situation with compassion and to guide her toward improvement rather than to penalize her.
Transport Business Owner (India based Cohort): I could not ignore the human dimension of leadership, especially when lives - both of
those receiving the aid and those delivering it; were at stake. I believe ethical leadership means not just making sound decisions, but
ensuring that the people impacted by those decisions are protected, respected, and supported to the best extent possible.
Principal of ITI (India based Cohort): Officially, all employees are required to live within an eight-kilometre radius of the institution.
However, our campus is located in a very remote area, and it is extremely difficult to find suitable housing nearby. Moreover, since
many of our employees hold transferable positions, it is not feasible for them to uproot their families every few years for the sake of
this rule. Understanding the personal challenges this creates, I have chosen to offer flexibility. I prioritised the well-being and stability
of my staff over strict enforcement of residency requirements.
Executive engineer (India based Cohort): One of my team members was unwell last week. She had completed a key task, but due to her
health, she was unable to submit the required report on the same day, as mandated by our department’s policy. Timely report
submission is critical because failure to do so can lead to penalties. However, she approached me asking for leave, and I told her to take
the time she needed. She ended up submitting the report three days later. To support her, we adjusted the date on the documentation to
reflect a delayed task completion. I knew this wasn’t strictly by the book, but I felt it was more important to care for my employee’s
well-being than to strictly enforce the rule.
Operations Excellence Engineer (India based Cohort): There is often a gap between written policies and real working conditions.
Procedures and policy makers frequently overlook the physical and operational limitations encountered on the ground. I chose to adapt
the system not out of convenience, but to ensure that the work could be carried out safely, efficiently, and realistically under the given
constraints.
Principal of ITI (India based Cohort): The persistent gap between policy expectations and actual capacity creates a recurring ethical
dilemma. When I reassign responsibilities in ways that deviate from official roles, I am not simply compensating for staffing
challenges. I am making a conscious decision to question and respond to a policy framework that demands compliance without
providing the necessary support for implementation.
Executive Engineer: (India based Cohort) Being a leader in India often requires mastering the art of jugaad, a form of creative problemsolving. Sometimes, policies are written without fully understanding the lived realities of those expected to follow them. In this case,
blindly applying the rule would have punished an employee for circumstances outside her control. I believe that rules should not
override human dignity or ethical judgment.
Administrator of religious institution (Canada based Cohort): The policy fails to account for individuals who are temporarily but
legitimately disabled due to injury or illness. As I reflected on this, I realized the need not just to make an exception but to critically
question the inclusivity of the policy itself. The incident prompted me to consider advocating for a revision that would allow for
temporary accommodations
Assistant Store Manager (Canada based Cohort): What I find particularly problematic is that the system, in its attempt to ensure
fairness, sometimes fails to hold individuals accountable, especially those with long tenure or informal influence. This has required me
to develop a critical awareness of how institutional protections may inadvertently perpetuate inequality and inefficiency.
Principal of Primary School (India based Cohort): Before making any major team-related decisions, like reward allocations, I
conducted open discussions with my team members to gather feedback and ensure everyone's perspectives were considered.

82
Ethical
Paradigm

Ethic of
Self-Care

Evidence in
Leadership
in India
(e.g., 4/5
participants)

Evidence in
Leadership
in Canada
(e.g., 4/5
participants)

Degree of
Evidence
All
Together

1

1

Weak

Interview Data
Transport business owner (India based Cohort): I have learned that being overly rigid with rules and policies can be counterproductive.
Instead, I focus on nurturing a culture of mutual respect and interdependence, where both employees and clients feel seen, heard, and
valued. This is not just a strategy for retention, but a belief: we grow together, and we face challenges together.
Principal of ITI (India based Cohort): Whenever a new task is assigned to our institution, particularly those mandated by the
government, I make it a point to bring all staff members together for a meeting. I explain the nature of the task, the timelines involved,
and any constraints we must work within. After presenting the full picture, we discuss together how best to approach it. The decision
on how we will complete the task is always made collectively, as a team.
Administrator of Religious Institution (Canada based Cohort): Even when people disagree with my decisions, they are more likely to
accept them if they feel heard, respected, and included in the reasoning process. In this way, collaborative decision making process
supports the implementation of Justice by helping ensure that even difficult choices are understood and accepted across diverse groups.
IT Coordinator (Canada based Cohort): Beyond caring for individual needs, this decision was also rooted in my responsibility toward
the broader workplace community. Rewarding a newer employee was a strategic way to encourage not only him but also other new
employees who might look up to his achievement. It sent a message that dedication and hard work would be noticed and celebrated,
regardless of tenure. Although the more experienced employee did not receive the main prize, he was honoured through a certificate,
public appreciation, and a formal letter of recognition, ensuring that the sense of fairness and morale was preserved.
Operations manager (Canada based Cohort): I respected the collective practices that had developed over time and allowed the entire
organization to maintain trust. I ensured that the voices and concerns of all groups including supervisors, workers, and management
were considered. This approach helped foster a sense of fairness, transparency, and unity within the organization.
Executive Engineer (India based Cohort): In my view, effective leadership particularly in community-based institutions is not just
about fulfilling your own responsibilities. It is about creating and sustaining a network of mutual support, where everyone feels
invested in each other’s success. Many times, I have seen that a leader’s effectiveness is determined not only by their technical or
administrative decisions, but by how well they are able to build trust and work in harmony with those around them.
Team Supervisor (Canada based Cohort): While ensuring fairness was my primary focus, I was also deeply conscious of maintaining
team morale and fostering a cooperative work environment. To further support this, I retrained the first-desk employee to guide walk-in
customers toward other team members based on their expertise. This not only helped distribute the client load more evenly but also
encouraged collaboration among team members. By doing so, employees who had previously felt excluded from walk-in opportunities
now had a fair chance to engage new clients, and the first-desk employee no longer felt isolated in handling an overwhelming number
of tasks. This solution promoted a stronger sense of teamwork and community within the team while also supporting the company's
overall growth.
Administrator of Religious Institution (Canada based Cohort): Over time, I learned that leadership, at least in my context, demanded an
emotional resilience that deeply challenged me. I am someone who takes criticism to heart. When others disagree with my decisions or
express frustration, I find myself affected to the point that it disrupts my peace of mind. I used to stay awake at night, replaying
conversations, feeling the weight of judgment, and questioning whether my decisions had hurt someone unintentionally. The constant
emotional strain began to affect my sense of balance and clarity. It also impacted my effectiveness as a leader. I realized that to
preserve my mental and emotional health, I needed to set clear boundaries. I chose to step away from formal decision-making
positions, not because I lacked commitment, but because I recognized that constantly bearing the emotional load of leadership was
unsustainable for me.
Principal of ITI (India based Cohort): Many times, I feel guilty for making imperfect choices as a leader because there is no clear or
fully just solution. I am constantly navigating structural constraints that make fairness difficult to achieve. Yet I choose not to ignore or
minimize these tensions. Instead, I reflect, listen, and act with that awareness in mind. I also accept that, in many situations, there is no
simple or entirely satisfactory solution.

83
Ethical
Paradigm

Evidence in
Leadership
in India
(e.g., 4/5
participants)

Evidence in
Leadership
in Canada
(e.g., 4/5
participants)

Degree of
Evidence
All
Together

Mixed to
Moderate
Ethic of the
Profession

3

3

Interview Data
Team Supervisor in Financial Services (Canada based Cohort): In making work allocation decisions, I not only followed the company’s
professional codes but also personally ensured fairness by considering both team feedback and my manager’s approval to maintain
ethical integrity.
Executive Engineer (India based Cohort): When it comes to resolving ethical dilemmas, I rely primarily on my own professional
judgment. Given the nature of my role, I would say I make about 60 to 70 percent of my decisions independently. This is not because I
reject collaboration, but because my position requires a deep understanding of specialized tasks and situational nuances that are often
specific to my responsibilities.
Transport Business Owner (India based Cohort): In this particular situation, we decided to make an exception by transporting
hazardous chemicals at the request of one of our oldest clients. While this decision involved bending our internal policy, it was never
taken lightly or without implementing rigorous safeguards. Our professional responsibility toward safety, compliance, and operational
integrity remained paramount throughout the process. Before accepting the shipment, we thoroughly reviewed all regulations related to
the transportation of hazardous materials. We also ensured that the items were properly packed and that every required safety protocol
was strictly followed. This exception was not a deviation from competence, but a calculated, responsibility-driven decision aligned
with our duty to serve both people and process with integrity.
Operations Manager (Canada based Cohort): In my current role, the majority of the ethical dilemmas and decisions I face are heavily
influenced by my professional expertise and responsibilities. I work with technologies that I have either introduced or helped
implement in the warehouse, such as the Auto Store system. Because I possess the most in-depth knowledge of these systems, I believe
it is both appropriate and necessary for me to take independent decisions regarding them. I rely on my specialized knowledge and
technical understanding to ensure that the decisions made are sound, informed, and aligned with professional standards, ultimately
ensuring the best outcomes for both the organization and the operational efficiency of the warehouse.

84
4.2 Ethic of Justice: India-Based Cohort
The Ethic of Justice is centred on fairness, individual rights, impartiality, and
adherence to universal principles such as the rule of law and procedural equity (Beckner,
2004; Frick et al., 2012; Shapiro et al., 2014). It is aligned with a deontological approach to
ethics, focusing not on outcomes, but on whether actions adhere to established norms and
legal expectations (Beckner, 2004). Among the Indian professionals interviewed, this ethic
appeared most vividly in moments when leaders defended due process, revised unfair
systems, or sought to protect individuals from being disadvantaged by arbitrary decisions.
The analysis of this cohort reflects a combination of procedural and distributive justice, with
leaders striving to treat individuals equitably while reforming flawed systems (Chryssides &
Kaler, 1996; Wood & Hilton, 2012).
A strong example of procedural justice emerged from Kiran, an executive engineer
who described a situation in which political pressure conflicted with newly implemented
government policy. In his account, he explained:
One ethical dilemma I encountered recently involved a conflict between following
a new government rule and responding to external pressure from political
authorities. The government had issued a directive aimed at eliminating VIP [Very
Important Person] culture, which included a strict policy that red lights and sirens
should no longer be used on vehicles of senior government officials. However, not
long after this rule was implemented, I received a request from the personal
assistant of a high-ranking official, asking that a red light and siren be installed on
his car. Since the maintenance and upkeep of government vehicles fall under our
department, the request came to one of my team members, who rightly refused it,
citing the new policy.

85
The engineer reported that despite the legitimacy of the refusal, both he and his team member
experienced considerable backlash:
A few days later, I began receiving calls from senior officials and political figures
questioning how we could deny a request from the personal assistant of such a
powerful official. My team member, who was simply upholding the law, started
facing criticism, harassment, and threats of false suspension. It became clear that
this situation posed serious risks to both him and me, despite our adherence to
official regulations.
To uphold procedural justice and protect his employee, the engineer chose to elevate the issue
through formal channels. He recounted:
In response, I chose to follow a path that preserved procedural justice and
protected my employee. I informed my superiors about the request and explained
that we could not act unless they issued a direct order. Once I received a verbal
instruction from my superior, I asked my team member to proceed. This way, I
ensured that our actions remained within the chain of command, in accordance
with legal and institutional frameworks. I refused to allow informal political
influence to override official procedures, but I also ensured that responsibility for
the final decision rested with the appropriate authority.
This approach exemplified a clear commitment to institutional fairness and accountability.
His decision to involve higher authorities and insist on documented authorization protected
both the employee and the process from informal interference. He concluded:
By handling the situation in this manner, I was able to uphold fairness, protect my
team member from unjust consequences, and ensure that our department acted
transparently and within the boundaries of law. As a leader, I believe that justice

86
is not only about enforcing rules, but also about safeguarding those who follow
them in the face of undue pressure.
This account reflects a principled enactment of procedural justice, wherein the leader aligned
his actions with the rule of law and protected institutional integrity. By resisting political
pressure and ensuring that actions were carried out through formal authority, he demonstrated
that ethical leadership includes not only compliance with policy but also the defence of those
who uphold it in challenging circumstances.
Distributive justice, which emphasizes fairness in the allocation of tasks,
responsibilities, and resources (Chryssides & Kaler, 1996), was also demonstrated by Kiran
who navigated a complex organizational dilemma involving the assignment of inspection
duties across three major offices. The companies to be inspected were unevenly distributed
geographically, and the original strategy was based solely on proximity; which led to
perceptions of inequity. The engineer explained the initial system:
One ethical dilemma I encountered involved the allocation of inspection tasks
among engineers across three major offices in the province. Each office has three
engineers, and one of my core responsibilities is to assign companies to these nine
engineers so they can inspect materials before procurement decisions are made.
We work with approximately 30 to 40 companies, but they are not evenly
distributed across the province; many are concentrated in specific locations. In my
first year, I allocated companies based primarily on geographic proximity. If a
cluster of companies was located near one office, I assigned those inspections to
engineers from that office. This approach made logistical sense, it reduced travel
time, minimized transportation costs, and expedited the inspection process.
However, it soon became clear that this system was perceived as unfair. Some

87
engineers ended up with significantly fewer inspection duties and were assigned
alternative tasks, which led to concerns about bias and favouritism.
Faced with this feedback, the engineer found himself in an ethical dilemma: maintain
operational efficiency or ensure a more equitable distribution of work. He reflected on the
leadership challenge:
This placed me in a difficult position. On one hand, I needed to ensure operational
efficiency; on the other, I had to consider fairness in workload distribution. It
became evident that there was no perfect solution that would make everyone
equally satisfied. However, as a leader, I believe that fairness is not just about
equal distribution but about reasoned, transparent, and context-sensitive decisions.
In response, he revised his approach. Rather than relying solely on location, he adopted a
more holistic strategy that integrated individual expertise with logistical realities:
To resolve the issue, I revised the allocation strategy. Instead of assigning
companies based solely on location, I began factoring in each engineer’s area of
expertise along with logistical considerations. This approach did slightly increase
transportation costs in some cases, but it allowed for a more balanced and just
distribution of responsibilities. The revised system was not only more equitable
but also helped to reduce perceptions of bias and foster greater trust among team
members.
By changing the allocation strategy Kiran acknowledges that equal access to opportunities
and resources will lead to fair and just outcomes for all (Beckner, 2004; Robbins
& Trabichet, 2009). The Kiran summarized his intention:
Ultimately, my goal was to uphold fairness in a complex situation where equal
treatment was not always feasible. By making decisions that were principled,

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transparent, and sensitive to context, I aimed to ensure that all engineers felt
respected and that their work was valued.
This example illustrates that distributive justice extends beyond simply assigning tasks
equally. It entails the equitable distribution of benefits, opportunities, resources, and wealth
among individuals. Additionally, it considers how outcomes are shared within the community
and places importance on advancing the well-being of the majority (Chryssides and Kaler,
1996).
An example of remedial and procedural justice came from Hemant, a transport
business owner who described the challenges his team faced in balancing efficiency, fairness,
and stakeholder demands. He explained that a recurring ethical issue arose after he took over
the business, specifically around delays experienced by drivers at the consignee's site. These
delays stemmed from ambiguous responsibilities and prolonged inspections. He explained:
One ethical dilemma I faced as a leader in my transportation business involved a
recurring conflict between efficiency, fairness, and stakeholder expectations. In
this business, we operate between two key parties the consigner, who ships the
goods and is our primary customer, and the consignee, who receives them. A
consistent issue arose after I took over the business: although we delivered goods
on time, our truck drivers were often held up at the consignee’s site for prolonged
periods, sometimes up to 8 to 14 hours, waiting for delivery acknowledgment
forms to be signed.
The issue was not simply logistical but ethical, as drivers were left to bear the consequences
of inefficiencies beyond their control. He added:
The problem was that consignees insisted on conducting thorough inspections of
the material before signing the delivery papers, with no fixed timeline.
Meanwhile, our drivers were expected to wait, often unjustly blamed for any

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quality issues and couldn’t proceed with their next delivery. This created
significant logistical challenges: delayed deliveries, increased idle time, rising
overtime costs, and growing frustration among drivers. Yet, enforcing a strict onehour limit on consignee inspections could strain our relationship with consignees
and jeopardize our service contract with the consigner.
Faced with this ethical tension, the business owner opted for a solution that upheld fairness
for all parties involved. He described the strategy he implemented:
This situation posed a clear ethical dilemma: How could I ensure fairness for our
drivers and maintain delivery efficiency without compromising our obligations to
clients? My solution was to pursue an approach grounded in procedural fairness
and mutual accountability.
To achieve this, he proposed a new contractual arrangement:
I proposed a contractual solution with the consigner, our primary customer. Under
this agreement, consigners would provide our drivers with a summary document
listing all relevant testing and inspections already conducted prior to dispatch.
This would serve as a record to reduce redundant checks at the delivery site.
Additionally, we requested the consigner and consignee collaborate to implement
a basic acceptance sampling method, a streamlined inspection protocol that could
be completed within one hour of delivery, allowing drivers to obtain the necessary
signatures and leave without delay.
This new system addressed both the process and the imbalance of responsibility. He
explained:
This solution brought clarity, consistency, and accountability to the process. It
protected our drivers from undue blame, honoured the consignee’s right to inspect
goods, and ensured that no party was unfairly burdened. Most importantly, it

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allowed us to maintain delivery schedules and customer satisfaction while
addressing the ethical imbalance in how responsibilities were distributed.
Reflecting on the broader ethical implications of this decision, the business owner noted:
By redefining procedural roles and responsibilities through collaborative
agreements, I was able to uphold fairness and transparency in our business
practices. For me, this decision reflects what ethical leadership means: ensuring
that every stakeholder be it the driver, the consigner, or the consignee is treated
justly, and that no one bears a disproportionate share of operational burdens.
This account illustrates a considered use of both remedial and procedural justice.
Instead of accepting flawed practices, the leader took deliberate actions to reassign
responsibility and institutionalize fairness. This reflects remedial justice, which seeks to
correct past harms through reparative measures (Chryssides & Kaler, 1996). At the same
time, the solution upheld procedural justice by ensuring fairness through transparent
processes, clarified roles, and consistent application of rules (Wood & Hilton, 2012). This
approach ensured that all stakeholders were treated with impartiality and respect.
Substantive justice, which emphasizes fairness, consistency, and honouring
obligations even under complex conditions (Chryssides and Kaler, 1996), was exemplified by
the same transport business owner (Hemant) who shared an incident during a period of
extreme weather. He described a situation in which his business faced a serious ethical
dilemma:
Last month, we were operating under extremely difficult circumstances due to
heavy rainfall and widespread waterlogging in many areas of my province. As the
head of a transportation business, I typically reject or delay orders during such
times, prioritizing logistical feasibility and the safety of our operations. However,
this particular situation posed a serious ethical dilemma. One of our consignees,

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who had signed an annual supply contract with us, needed to urgently deliver
critical materials to remote areas on behalf of the provincial disaster management
department. The materials were essential for supporting emergency response
teams tasked with saving lives.
Hemant was caught between two conflicting obligations: honouring a legal and contractual
agreement and ensuring the safety of his personnel. He explained the stakes clearly:
I was faced with two conflicting obligations, on one hand, I had a legal and
contractual responsibility to honour the shipment; on the other hand, fulfilling the
order meant sending vehicles and staff through areas submerged under up to three
feet of water. This brought significant risks: the possibility of vehicle failure,
delays, and even physical danger to our personnel. Moreover, failure to take the
order would result in a financial penalty and likely the permanent loss of an
important client.
Recognizing that any decision would carry costs and risks, he relied on procedural and
distributive justice principles to weigh the outcomes:
This situation left no fair outcome, whatever decision I made, someone would
bear the cost. I evaluated which course of action would result in the least harm
and how can I reach the fairest possible compromise.
Ultimately, the business owner chose to honour the contract despite the operational and
financial toll it entailed:
Ultimately, I chose to complete the order. Although this choice came with high
vehicle maintenance costs afterward, it allowed us to uphold our contractual
commitment and support a public service effort without defaulting on our
responsibilities.
Reflecting on the moral complexity of the decision, he noted:

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This decision illustrates how justice-oriented leadership sometimes requires
weighing harm across all stakeholders and selecting the most proportionate and
ethically defensible response even when no option feels entirely fair.
This account reflects the core of substantive justice: a commitment to uphold
established responsibilities and institutional agreements, even in adverse conditions
(Chryssides and Kaler, 1996). It also demonstrates procedural judgment, as the leader
considered all stakeholder impacts before deciding on a course of action (Wood & Hilton,
2012). Hemant’s leadership was grounded in fairness, proportionality, and integrity not in
convenience or avoidance of loss. By choosing a more difficult path, Hemant believed that
“justice involves honouring commitments while also being attentive to the real-world risks
faced by others.”
In the educational domain, procedural justice was demonstrated by Ritu a school
principal who reflected on the unintended consequences of introducing a student leadership
award without predefined criteria. The situation arose within the framework of a year-long
program known as the Child Parliament, which fosters student understanding of governance
through participation and peer leadership. The principal described the context and the ethical
challenge:
In our school, we run a year-long educational initiative called the Child
Parliament, designed to help students understand the principles of governance
through active participation. Each year in July, we conduct student elections, and
the elected representatives are placed in leadership positions, working alongside
teacher mentors to manage various school-based activities. These student teams
take turns, with each group responsible for school activities for a 15-day period
throughout the academic year. For the first time, during our annual function in
March, we decided to introduce an award recognizing the best-performing team of

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the year. However, we quickly encountered an ethical dilemma. Because this
decision was introduced at the end of the year and we had not maintained a formal
system to track each team’s performance, the announcement of the winning team
led to dissatisfaction and criticism from other students. Many felt that the decision
was arbitrary and lacked transparency. In hindsight, their concerns were valid
there was no prior notice about the award, and students themselves had not kept
records of their efforts, assuming all participation was equal.
This oversight revealed a gap in procedural fairness that compromised trust in the recognition
system. Rather than nullify the award entirely or proceed with a blanket solution, the
principal made a principled decision that aligned with long-term fairness and accountability:
At that moment, I realized that no matter which team was recognized, it would
appear unfair to others due to the absence of predefined criteria. While one
suggestion was to give all teams an award, I believed that doing so would
undermine the purpose of introducing recognition to promote motivation,
accountability, and healthy competition among students.
To restore trust and ensure transparency, the principal implemented a two-part solution:
As a short-term measure, we provided participation awards to all teams to
acknowledge their contributions. But more importantly, we introduced a
formalized evaluation structure for future cycles. From the following year
onward, we designed a transparent scorecard system: after each team completes
its 15-day rotation, a performance report is compiled detailing their initiatives,
outcomes, and point-based evaluations. These reports are maintained throughout
the year and form the basis for selecting the best-performing team during the
annual function.

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This solution not only corrected the immediate concern but institutionalized a framework for
justice going forward. The principal emphasized that the guiding principle was rooted in
ethical leadership:
It ensured fairness by establishing clear rules, objective evaluation criteria, and
accountability mechanisms. By doing so, we not only restored trust in the process
but also strengthened the educational value of the Child Parliament, teaching
students that fairness and transparency are essential principles in any leadership or
governance system.
This case illustrates procedural justice in action: the deliberate establishment of structures,
evaluation tools, and communication mechanisms to ensure all stakeholders are treated fairly
(Wood & Hilton, 2012). By introducing a transparent scorecard system that included clearly
defined rules and laws for evaluating student participants, Ritu created a structure that
ensured impartial, unbiased, and fair treatment for all students involved.
The ethic of justice was also demonstrated in how leaders approached workplace
disputes with fairness and transparency. Pavan, an operational excellence engineer reflected
on a conflict between a junior quality engineer and shopfloor workers over a report that had
caused offense. Rather than taking a side, the engineer pursued a resolution grounded in factfinding and equity. He described the situation as follows:
In a conflict between shopfloor workers and a quality engineer (my subordinate)
regarding false reporting, I found myself in a position where both sides felt
wronged and in fact, both had acted in accordance with their roles and followed
the rules as they understood them. In this situation, both the workers and my
subordinate were right, and they both felt the other side should apologize. I
didn’t want to take sides without knowing the full story, so to solve the conflict, I
went down to the shop floor and had a conversation with the workers about why

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they were late. After inquiring, I came to know that they’re usually on time, but
that particular day, there was a delay in the sanitation and gowning area and
that’s what caused the delay. Once I understood this, I assured the workers that
moving forward, if any report reflects them negatively, I’ll make sure to include
their side of the story. I also spoke with my subordinate and told him that I
appreciated his attention to detail and his honesty in reporting, but from now on,
we should always clear any doubts with the workers first. We came to an
agreement before sending any negative report, we’ll confirm the facts directly
with those involved. Usually, we aren’t expected to involve shop floor workers
in report preparation to avoid bias, but in this case, I felt that bending the rule
was necessary to be just to both parties.
This detailed account exemplifies procedural justice in leadership. By refusing to assign
blame prematurely, the engineer sought a unbiased and transparent process (Wood & Hilton,
2012). He conducted a thorough investigation, validated the concerns of both sides, and
adjusted future procedures to include direct worker input, thus addressing the power
imbalance often embedded in reporting hierarchies.
Each of these incidents illustrates a facet of the ethic of justice. Leaders applied
procedural justice by insisting on proper processes, distributive justice by redistributing work
responsibilities fairly, and remedial justice by correcting systemic inefficiencies. Across
interviews, justice was not viewed as synonymous with rigid rule-following, but as a moral
obligation to uphold fairness, transparency, and consistency. The leaders did not reject rules
but interpreted them with flexibility when fairness demanded reform.
Overall, the India based cohort demonstrated that the ethic of justice was most
frequently activated in situations where formal policies appeared to conflict with fairness or
where ambiguous systems allowed inequity to persist. Four out of five leaders reported using

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the ethic of justice in their decision making when addressing ethical dilemmas. Among these
four leaders, one was female and three were male. There was no significant difference
observed in how the ethic of justice was applied across genders. The next section discusses
the ethic of justice from the perspective of the Canada-based cohort. The findings revealed
that four out of five immigrant leaders followed an ethic of justice, however, their application
of this paradigm differed in tangible ways from Indian leaders.
4.3 Ethic of Justice: Canada-Based Cohort
Among Indian immigrant leaders working in Canada, the ethic of justice was
prominently demonstrated in situations where consistency, equitable access, and evidencebased decision-making were prioritized despite cultural pressures or institutional ambiguity.
An example of procedural justice was shared by Taha an administrator of a religious
institution in Canada who faced a complex ethical dilemma involving differing cultural
expectations around religious ceremonies. With multiple valid perspectives emerging from
various community groups, the administrator found himself needing to make a decision that
upheld fairness without succumbing to individual pressures or the appearance of bias. He
explained the broader framework that guided his reasoning:
Alongside the community-focused approach, I also recognized the necessity for a
decision that could be justified on the basis of fairness, consistency, and
procedural reasoning. In situations where multiple valid viewpoints exist, my role
was to identify a path that could be logically explained and publicly defended,
without appearing to favour one group over another. After carefully weighing
both perspectives along with the institutional guidelines and rules, I chose the
course of action that best aligned with the institution's established policies. I then
communicated this decision transparently to the congregation, emphasizing that it

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was not based on personal preference or bias but on adherence to rules that apply
equally to everyone.
The clarity and fairness of his decisions were made evident through how he communicated
the rationale to others: “The choice I made was not for the sake of favouritism to any group,
but because it was the most logical and efficient way of doing things.” His explanation
reflects a commitment to procedural justice, not only in the outcome of the decision but also
in the reliance on universal rules applied equally to everyone. He reflected:
In doing so, I wanted to ensure that everyone understood the rationale, and that
the decision was made with integrity, not partiality. This reaffirmed people’s trust
not only in the outcome, but in the fairness of the process itself.
The administrator’s leadership shows that when decisions are grounded in universal rules,
fairness and openly explained, they can reinforce institutional trust and unity, even in diverse
and potentially divided communities.
Distributive justice, which refers to employees’ perceptions of fairness in the
outcomes they receive at work such as opportunities for growth, salary, promotions, and
overall welfare (Le & Nguyen, 2023), was clearly demonstrated by Siya, an assistant store
manager in Canada. She took action to address what she saw as a systemic imbalance in the
assignment of shifts and advancement opportunities. Her intervention was rooted in the belief
that justice must reflect both merit and commitment. She explained:
Understanding the systemic imbalance, I felt a responsibility to act to restore
fairness for deserving employees. I approached my manager and advocated for a
policy where shift allocations and work hours are prioritized for those who have
been consistently working with us for at least three years and have demonstrated
strong performance. By ensuring that experienced and capable employees are

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given more work hours, we can provide them with a real opportunity to be
considered for promotions in the future.
Her reflections revealed that her understanding of justice extended beyond rigid procedural
adherence. She emphasized the moral imperative of recognizing loyalty and effort:
This action was grounded in my belief that justice is not about blindly following
rigid rules but about making sure that people's hard work and loyalty are
recognized and rewarded. It was important for me to create a system where
advancement opportunities were more fairly distributed, reflecting both merit and
commitment.
This leader’s approach demonstrates how distributive justice can be actively constructed
within organizational systems. Rather than treating all workers identically regardless of
contribution, she advocated for equity by designing a policy that acknowledged long-term
effort and reliability. In doing so, she not only corrected unfair patterns but also embedded
values of fairness and motivation into daily operational decisions. Her action reshaped
advancement criteria to ensure that opportunity was earned through sustained contribution
rather than informal influence or happenstance.
Similarly, the ethic of justice was demonstrated by Abhi, an operations manager who
faced an ethical challenge shortly after assuming a leadership role. During a complex
warehouse relocation, he encountered a directive that appeared to conflict with both legal
safety standards and moral responsibility. He described the situation in detail:
The first significant ethical dilemma I encountered as a leader arose when I was
newly appointed to my organization. I was tasked with overseeing the relocation
of all equipment and parts from our current warehouse to a new location. While
reviewing the detailed To-Do List for this transition, I noticed an instruction that

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raised immediate concerns: we were directed to dismantle and transfer all safety
equipment before completing the rest of the move.
Upon identifying the issue, he reflected on the potential risks this directive posed, despite
management’s insistence that the work remaining was minimal:
Upon closer reflection, I realized that proceeding in this manner would violate
established organizational safety regulations, as workers would be forced to
complete tasks without proper protective measures. When I voiced my concerns
to my immediate manager, I was informed that since the remaining items were
relatively lightweight approximately 10 to 15 pounds there was little risk of
injury, and I should proceed according to the instructions.
Despite these assurances, he chose to act in accordance with ethical and legal principles
rather than managerial convenience:
However, from an ethical standpoint, I believed that safety protocols must not be
compromised, regardless of perceived risk levels. I recognized that having safety
equipment readily available was not only a legal requirement but also a safeguard
for any unforeseen circumstances.
His ultimate decision reflected a strong commitment to procedural justice and worker
protection:
To uphold the principles of fairness and protect the rights of workers, I chose to
alter the task sequence: I instructed my team to leave the safety equipment in
place until all other items had been moved. In this way, we remained compliant
with organizational safety standards and respected the fundamental rights of the
workers.
This case illustrates the application of justice through adherence to established rules. Abhi
chose to modify the task sequence to comply with organizational safety standards while also

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prioritizing worker safety. It serves as an example of achieving justice and fairness through
the universal application of policy. As Shapiro and Stefkovich (2016) explain, the ethic of
justice prompts leaders to consider questions such as: “Is there a law, right, or policy that
relates to a particular case? If there is a law, right, or policy, should it be enforced?” (p.14)
An example of substantive justice emerged in the Abhi’s (operations manager)
handling of performance data during the rollout of a new robotics system in his
organization’s warehouse. Substantive justice relates to the morality and legitimacy of the
content of rules, regulations, and procedures themselves. It focuses on ensuring that the rules
workers are bound by are fair, legitimate, and practical given real work conditions (Dekker &
Breakey, 2016). He described a complex ethical dilemma involving how task efficiency was
calculated for new equipment. The dilemma revolved around whether to include idle time
periods during which no tasks were completed in the final performance report. He began by
outlining his role and the purpose of the testing:
One of the tasks that I perform in my company is to oversee the introduction or
installation of new robots, equipment, or technologies in our warehouse. As part
of this process, we conduct testing to identify the 'task per hour' rate, meaning
how many tasks one worker can complete in an hour using the new technology.
This helps us determine how efficient the new technology is compared to older
systems. Before these tests, we typically have an estimated task per hour
benchmark, but the actual testing is necessary for proper calibration and
validation.
While conducting these tests, he observed a common practice among supervisors that raised
ethical concerns:
During this process, I noticed a common practice where supervisors, who spend
most of their time on the warehouse floor, remove the idle time from the

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calculations. Their argument is that removing idle time allows for a clearer view
of the equipment’s potential performance, and it also makes the reported numbers
look better against expected benchmarks.
This created a moral dilemma. Removing idle time might uphold previous practices but could
set unrealistic expectations for workers. Including it, however, might call into question the
validity of earlier reports. He explained:
I faced an ethical dilemma: I could either report the numbers with the idle time
removed, which would align with previous practices but would be slightly unfair
to workers by setting unrealistic expectations; or I could report the actual task
numbers, including idle time, to provide a more honest and accurate
representation of the equipment’s performance.
Weighing the risks of misrepresentation against the need for accuracy and fairness, he
devised a balanced solution:
On one hand, if I included the idle time, it could unfairly suggest that supervisors
had previously manipulated data. On the other hand, if I removed the idle time, it
would disadvantage workers by establishing a misleading benchmark.
Recognizing that my primary responsibility was to ensure fairness and
transparency in the reporting process, I chose a balanced approach: I created two
sheets one with idle time included and one without. I shared both versions with
upper management and explained what each represented.
This approach not only addressed the technical side of performance measurement but also
aligned with ethical leadership principles: “In this way, I ensured that all sides were fairly
represented, and that decision-makers had full, accurate information to evaluate the
technology ethically and justly.”

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This case exemplifies how substantive justice in leadership involves more than
compliance with reporting norms. It reflects a deliberate choice to present accurate, balanced
data that acknowledges the complexity of worker performance and the risks of onedimensional metrics. By providing two versions of the report and clearly communicating
their implications, the operations manager ensured transparency, upheld worker dignity, and
preserved institutional trust in decision-making processes.
Procedural justice was demonstrated by Rishi a Team supervisor, when working with
a late coming complaint of one employee he established some clear rule and ensure that it
was applicable to all. He explained his reasoning by stating that:
To maintain fairness and transparency, we also decided to set a time limit on how
many minutes an employee could be late. If someone exceeded this benchmark, a
certain pay deduction would apply. Although I personally do not believe in
punishment and prefer to focus on positive motivation, we understood that it was
important to have clear boundaries to prevent the perception that some employees
were taking advantage of leniency. This step reassured other employees that
standards of fairness were being maintained, ensuring that the policies were
consistent and just for all.
Overall, Canadian-based Indian immigrant leaders demonstrated the ethic of justice
not only by following rules, but by creating and adjusting systems to make those rules work
more fairly. Their application of justice was rule based, evidence-driven, and sensitive to
individual rights. The next section discusses the ethic of critique from the perspective of the
India-based cohort. The findings revealed that three out of five immigrant leaders
demonstrated the ethic of critique.
4.4 Ethic of Critique: India-Based Cohort

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The ethic of critique challenges leaders to question and confront existing structures,
rules, and traditions when those systems perpetuate inequality, inefficiency, or injustice.
Rather than accepting flawed institutions as immutable, this ethic calls for thoughtful
resistance, moral discernment, and leadership that seeks reform (Shapiro & Stefkovich,
2016). Among Indian professionals working in leadership roles, this ethic emerged as a
significant mode of ethical reasoning. Their testimonies reveal a willingness to question
formal systems and to act when institutional mechanisms fail to serve the people they are
intended to protect.
One of the powerful illustrations of the ethic of critique comes from the Ravi, a
principal of an Industrial Training Institute (ITI), who operates within a chronically
understaffed government institution. An ethical dilemma raised from the state’s reliance on
contractual labour, where temporary workers hired through third-party agencies routinely
suffer delays in salary disbursement due to bureaucratic inefficiencies. While full-time
employees are paid promptly, contract staff often wait months for wages. The principal
articulated the ethical breakdown:
The system is failing them, and I see it happen over and over again. These delays
are not anomalies, they are predictable outcomes of a structure that does not take
the realities of temporary workers seriously. The official process upholds
formality at the cost of fairness.
This failure disproportionately harms the most vulnerable. As the principal described:
Many of them earn minimum wage and live from pay check to pay check. The
impact of these salary delays on their lives is not just inconvenient, it is
devastating. These are people who rely on every rupee for rent, food,
transportation, and basic survival.
Rather than accept this injustice, the principal acts against the system:

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Because of this, I often find myself in the position of bending rules. I collaborate
directly with the agencies and adjust or expedite documentation to ensure these
workers receive their salaries on time. I do not take these actions lightly. I know
they are technically outside the bounds of official procedure.
His resistance is not impulsive or self-serving, it is principled:
If I chose to follow every policy strictly, I would be complicit in prolonging harm.
As a leader, I feel a moral responsibility to act when the rules themselves create
inequality. Bending those rules is not about defiance, it is about holding the
system accountable to the people it should serve.
This account exemplifies the ethic of critique as a moral imperative to challenge rules when
those rules reproduce inequity, particularly against marginalized groups. The principal’s
actions recognize power imbalances, amplify marginalized voices, and reject rules that
perpetuate inequality (Berges Puyo, 2022).
The same leader provided another example of critical ethical reasoning, centred on
how outdated institutional policies fail to align with current workplace demands. Government
regulations prescribe that administrative tasks be performed by permanent senior staff, while
probationary staff focus on teaching and training. However, in practice, most administrative
tasks now require digital proficiency, an area where many senior staff lack competency. As
the principal explained:
Even in 2025, they receive instruction on tools from 2003, which are no longer
relevant. The upskilling programs that do exist are either irregular or ineffective,
making it impossible for senior staff to carry out tech-based administrative duties
competently.
To ensure efficiency and fairness, he reassigns administrative responsibilities to digitally
literate probationary employees, even though this contradicts official job descriptions:

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According to government rules, administrative responsibilities should primarily
be allocated to senior permanent employees… However, in practice, I often
assign administrative tasks to the probationary employees, even though it falls
outside their defined role. This is not a decision made lightly, but rather one that
emerges from a systemic gap between policy and reality.
This action, again, is not taken in secrecy. The principal makes the process transparent and
participatory:
To navigate this, I involve both groups in the decision-making process, offer
flexibility, and ensure transparent communication. I always explain the rationale
behind task assignments, especially when it deviates from formal policy.
His reflections reveal a leader not merely adapting but actively resisting dysfunctional norms:
By reassigning responsibilities contrary to official roles, I am consciously
challenging a system that demands compliance without enabling capacity… My
approach reflects a belief that ethical leadership includes recognizing and resisting
the limitations of rigid bureaucratic systems when they undermine functionality,
fairness, and equity in the workplace.
Through both examples, the principal demonstrates that critique is not cynicism, it is a
necessary act of leadership when formal structures become obsolete or unjust. His actions
reflect the ethic of critique, which challenges leaders to engage in moral resistance, cultivate
awareness of systemic issues, and practice principled disobedience in order to confront power
and inequity, prioritizing equity for people over uncritical adherence to institutional norms
(Berges Puyo, 2022; Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016).
A similar pattern of systemic critique appears in the account of Pavan (operational
excellence engineer) working in pharmaceutical manufacturing. After completing the
production of one medicine, his team is required to clean and dry over three hundred machine

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parts in a small facility not designed for such volume. Pavan observed that the formal
cleaning process, though well intended, was practically impossible to follow without creating
inefficiencies and fatigue among workers. Instead of insisting on strict compliance, he
approved an adapted workflow. He shared:
I have another example that reflects a structural issue in our process. After
completing the production of one medicine, we are required to disassemble and
sanitize over 300 machine parts that come into direct or indirect contact with the
product. The official procedure involves scrubbing each part, washing it with
process water, then with purified water, and finally drying it, all within a
designated washing area. However, the washing area is extremely small and not
designed to accommodate such a large number of parts at once. This makes it
nearly impossible for workers to follow the procedure exactly as prescribed.
Faced with this constraint, he supported a modified process:
Given this limitation, the workers adopted an alternative method... Technically,
this method does not comply with the standard protocol. However, I recognized
that the current infrastructure does not support full procedural compliance.
Therefore, I chose to allow the workers to follow their modified method. To
maintain safety and hygiene, I restructured the drying area into two distinct
sections... This helped prevent cross-contamination and made the process more
practical for the workers.
Reflecting on this decision, he added:
This situation highlights a gap between written policies and real working
conditions... I decided to adapt the system not out of convenience, but to ensure
that work could be carried out safely, efficiently, and realistically under the given
constraints.

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In this case, the engineer does not discard the purpose of the policy but reimagines its
application in a way that preserves both safety and practicality.
Another example comes from Kiran (executive engineer) tasked with registering
companies for material procurement. According to the current policy, companies are assigned
to one of two categories based on a set of fixed criteria. During one registration cycle, a
company that performed exceptionally well was slated for the lower category due to a literal
interpretation of outdated evaluation metrics. He explained:
Recently, I encountered a situation where I felt the need to challenge an existing
policy because it no longer served its intended purpose... Companies are
categorized into Category A or B based on a set of predefined criteria. Category A
includes companies that supply highly critical and high-value materials, while
Category B is designated for companies dealing with less essential supplies.
He identified a failure in the system:
During a recent registration cycle, we observed that one company... was being
pushed into Category B due to a rigid interpretation of the current evaluation
criteria. While technically correct, this decision felt ethically flawed, it penalized
a qualified company and would have placed them in a lower category for at least
three years.
Rather than accept the decision:
I made the decision to reject the application instead of assigning it to Category B.
Along with the rejection, we provided the company with a detailed list of
suggested corrections... Although this action deviated from the standard process,
it was rooted in a critical awareness that the current criteria were not functioning
justly in this case.
He then took steps to address the structural root of the problem:

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I initiated a broader conversation within my department... I drafted a revised set of
evaluation criteria and submitted it for approval to our superiors... This revision
will allow us to better align our categorization process with the actual capabilities
and performance of companies.
He concluded:
This decision reflects my belief that leadership requires not only following rules,
but also critically examining when rules fail to deliver just outcomes. Bending the
policy in this case was not about personal preference, it was a deliberate,
principled response to a systemic flaw.
Kiran’s actions exemplify ethical critique. He recognized a flaw in the policy and took
steps to amend it, ensuring that it aligns with principles of fairness and fulfils its intended
goals. In doing so, he actively challenged the inequities embedded within systemic norms and
institutional policies (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016).
In a final reflection, Kiran expressed a leadership perspective deeply rooted in Indian
leadership traditions. He articulated a deeper concern: “This situation also reveals a broader
issue with how rigid and unforgiving institutional policies can be.” He described how
decision-making in the Indian context often calls for flexible thinking and ethical courage:
“Being a leader in India often requires mastering the art of jugaad - a form of creative
problem-solving. Sometimes, policies are written without fully understanding the lived
realities of those expected to follow them.” In a final reflection on leadership, he emphasized:
“Leadership, in this context, means not only complying with systems but questioning them
when they do not align with fairness or reality.” This statement aligns with Wood and
Narvaez’s (2014) view that critique involves a careful examination of a system’s strengths
and weaknesses. Leaders guided by the ethic of critique focus on challenging institutional
structures that perpetuate inequality, dehumanization, and exclusion.

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Together, these narratives illustrate that Indian leaders practicing the Ethic of Critique
do not aim to undermine systems. Instead, they seek to humanize and improve them. Their
actions represent an ethical paradigm grounded in reflection, resistance, and reform. When
they encounter institutional barriers that obstruct justice or functionality, they do not
passively comply. They act with purpose, critique with clarity, and create alternatives that
better reflect ethical responsibility. The next section discusses the ethic of critique from the
perspective of the Canada-based cohort. The findings revealed that two out of five immigrant
leaders demonstrated the ethic of critique.
4.5 Ethic of Critique: Canada-Based Cohort
First example of the ethic of critique came from Taha, who encountered a situation
where compassion pushed against the boundaries of institutional regulations. A man with a
fractured leg arrived at the masjid and requested permission to park in the designated
accessible parking space. He did not have an official permit, and according to policy, only
those with certified accessibility parking stickers were allowed to use that space. The
administrator recounted, “According to the policy, only those with certified permits are
allowed to park there. However, it was clear that his condition constituted a temporary
disability that the current policy did not recognize.” This moment of tension between policy
compliance and ethical responsiveness sparked a broader reflection on the policy itself: “This
highlighted for me a systemic flaw in the policy: it fails to account for individuals who are
temporarily but legitimately disabled due to injury or illness.” Rather than dismissing the
issue as a one-time exception, he began questioning the inclusivity of existing institutional
norms:
As I reflected on this, I realized the need not just to make an exception but to
critically question the inclusivity of the policy itself. The incident prompted me to
consider advocating for a revision that would allow for temporary

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accommodations. My decision to relax the policy in this case was not about
undermining rules, but about calling attention to their inadequacy in serving those
they are meant to protect.
He also emphasized the human dimension of leadership the need to respond to people, not
just rules:
Alongside the structural critique, there was also a clear moral imperative to
respond to the human need in front of me. The individual was in visible
discomfort and simply seeking access to a place of worship. As a leader in a
community space, I believe it is my responsibility to ensure that everyone
especially those in vulnerable conditions feels supported and included.
His story illustrates how the ethic of critique can operate in tandem with care, challenging
structural exclusion while upholding compassion, inclusion, and moral accountability.
Another example comes from Siya, an assistant store manager who described how
long-tenured employees sometimes exploit legal protections in ways that undermine
accountability. She explained:
One recurring challenge is managing the behaviour of senior employees who have
learned to navigate, and in some cases manipulate, institutional protections to
their advantage. They are well aware that the Canadian labour system prioritizes
employee rights to such an extent that disciplinary actions like termination are
extremely rare and bureaucratically complex. This awareness has created a
dynamic where some employees, despite being highly experienced, display
complacency or even exploit gaps in the system, knowing there are minimal
consequences.
She went on to reflect more broadly on what this means for her ethical responsibilities as a
leader:

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What I find particularly problematic is that the system, in its attempt to ensure
fairness, sometimes fails to hold individuals accountable, especially those with
long tenure or informal influence. It is not enough to enforce rules blindly; I must
constantly question whether the existing structures are truly serving the intended
purpose.
In this account, her leadership is grounded in the ethic of critique, which compels leaders to
examine and challenge institutional frameworks that may appear neutral but in practice create
unequal or inefficient outcomes (Wood & Navarez, 2014). Her critical perspective reflects the
belief that ethical leadership requires communities to act as drivers of change by confronting
and challenging established power structures and systems (Berges Puyo, 2022).
A second narrative from the same assistant manager illuminated another structural
flaw one involving promotion criteria. This dilemma regarding work allocation primarily
demonstrated reliance upon the ethic of justice in the resolution but the leader also
demonstrated ethic of critique in understanding the root cause of the dilemma. She offered a
candid observation of how institutional advancement is often determined less by performance
and more by availability:
Despite the capability, dedication, and performance of employees who have been
working with us for two to three years, many are not considered for higher
positions. This is not because of their lack of merit, but because promotions are
heavily dependent on their availability for shifts rather than their skills or
contributions. Employees who cannot offer complete availability are overlooked,
even though they may perform better than others.
The inequity extends even to those who meet availability expectations:
Even those who provide full availability often end up getting only a few shifts,
which forces them to seek multiple jobs for financial survival. This situation

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highlights a critical flaw in the system, where economic vulnerability and
inflexible rules about availability prevent talented individuals from advancing.
In reflecting on these dynamics, she concluded: “As a leader, I recognize that the system does
not always reward genuine effort and performance, and this continuous inequity needs to be
questioned and challenged.” This account illustrates challenging the hidden inequities
embedded in “neutral” institutional policies. Rather than accept the structural limitations of
her role, this manager uses her critical awareness to advocate for fairness and rethinking what
leadership and performance should mean within her organizational context.
Finally, the same leader described a difficult situation involving an assistant team
leader who regularly neglected responsibilities due to ongoing health issues. Despite repeated
disruptions to team operations, legal constraints prevented any reassessment or restructuring
of her role. While the leader understood the importance of accommodation, she also
recognized that this form of protection came at the cost of fairness to others. “In a different
system, more suitable and balanced adjustments could have been made to protect both the
individual and the broader team.” Her critique reveals a tension between individual rights and
collective efficiency, and a leadership perspective that values structural reform to create more
adaptive, balanced solutions. The next section discusses the ethic of care from the perspective
of the India-based cohort. The findings revealed that five out of five immigrant leaders
demonstrated the ethic of care.
4.6 Ethic of Care: India-Based Cohort
The ethic of care is defined as an approach that prioritizes empathy, relational
responsibility, and responsiveness to the needs of others over strict adherence to impersonal
rules or institutional expectations (Held, 2006; Noddings, 2013). It values situational
awareness and emotional attunement and regards moral decisions as inseparable from the
relational and cultural contexts in which they occur. Among the India-based cohort of

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leaders, all five out of five leaders demonstrated this ethic, underpinning leadership choices
across sectors. Indian professionals framed ethical leadership not only as a matter of doing
what is right, but as an ongoing commitment to understanding, supporting, and uplifting those
they lead.
One of the expressions of the ethic of care in the India-based cohort emerged in the
reflections of Ravi, a principal of an Industrial Training Institute (ITI), who navigated
institutional policy in a way that centred the human realities of his staff. He encountered a
policy requiring all employees to reside within an eight-kilometre radius of the institution a
rule intended, perhaps, to ensure proximity and availability. However, he quickly recognized
the ethical tension between bureaucratic compliance and compassion for employee wellbeing. He explained the context of the policy and its practical implications:
Officially, all employees are required to live within an eight-kilometre radius of
the institution. However, our campus is located in a very remote area, and it is
extremely difficult to find suitable housing nearby. Moreover, since many of our
employees hold transferable positions, it is not feasible for them to uproot their
families every few years for the sake of this rule.
Rather than rigidly enforce this policy, Ravi chose to focus on the broader implications for
his staff’s lives. He articulated his reasoning with moral clarity: “Understanding the personal
challenges this creates, I have chosen to offer flexibility. I prioritised the well-being and
stability of my staff over strict enforcement of residency requirements.”
Ravi shared another example of an ethical dilemma in which he used similar reasoning to
guide his decision-making process:
Our institutional schedule is supposed to align with the timelines prescribed by
the government. But in practice, following the official timetable would exclude
the majority of our students from meaningful participation. Approximately 70%

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of our students travel daily from nearby cities and villages, and the public
transportation system in this rural area is extremely limited. If we adhered strictly
to the mandated schedule, many students would miss a significant portion of their
classes simply because the bus timings do not match the official timetable. To
address this, we have made intentional adjustments to our daily schedule so that it
aligns with the transportation realities of our students. These changes ensure that
students can attend classes consistently and receive the full benefit of their
training, which is, after all, the core purpose of our institution.
Explaining the reasoning behind his decision, Ravi stated:
My decisions in both cases were driven by care, care for the lived realities of the
people I work with and serve. I believe leadership must begin with empathy and
responsiveness. Rules are important, but they should not come at the cost of
people’s well-being, dignity, or access to opportunity.
This leadership decision demonstrates a deliberate shift away from a purely rules-based
approach and toward one grounded in empathy, contextual awareness, and human dignity.
The principal’s choice to relax institutional norms was not an act of rule-breaking, but rather
an ethical interpretation of policy through the lens of compassion.
This same sensitivity is evident in the leadership style of the Pavan (operational
excellence engineer), who described his role as relational and trust-based:
I see myself as a leader whose role is to support and help my operators. My
ultimate goal is to reduce their burden and make their work easier through the
decisions I take. I believe that when I care for them and help solve their problems,
they will stand by me when I need them.
Another illustration of the ethic of care came from Pavan, who described a conflict
between his subordinate and a group of shopfloor workers regarding a perceived case of false

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reporting. Alongside upholding fairness, the leader focused on emotional repair,
demonstrating his empathy toward both parties. He described how the workers felt hurt by
the implications of the report:
The workers were really upset. They felt like they were being accused of not
taking their job seriously, and that their sincerity was being questioned. That
didn’t sit right with me. I could see they were hurt, and they felt misrepresented.
So, I went and spoke to them directly, and when I realized what had actually
happened, I apologized on behalf of my subordinate. I told them that I understood
now and that I would make sure their side of the story was heard in the future. I
wanted them to feel seen and valued, that their work matters and doesn’t go
unnoticed.
His leadership extended beyond defending one side; he also validated the concerns of the
subordinate:
At the same time, I also spoke with my subordinate. He told me that even small
delays like 15 or 20 minutes can affect production targets, and he reported it
because he believes every detail counts. I told him I agree, his dedication and eye
for detail are commendable. He admitted he should’ve asked the workers before
reporting, and we both agreed to handle things differently in the future.
In summarizing his approach, the engineer reflected:
For me, it was important to make sure that both the workers and my subordinate
felt heard, respected, and supported. I didn’t want anyone to feel disregarded or
isolated in the process.
This example reflects an ethic of care, where the leader’s role involves attending to the
emotional impact of conflict and restoring dignity within relationships. According to
Noddings (2013), the ethic of care is an invitation to adopt an alternative perspective, urging

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leaders to look beyond their own needs and focus on the needs of others. Rather than
asserting authority, the leader demonstrated care through listening, acknowledgment, and
collaborative resolution.
The ethic of care was also evident in the decision-making of Kiran (executive
engineer) who responded empathetically to a policy violation involving a sick employee.
While departmental rules required immediate report submission following task completion,
the leader chose to adjust formal documentation to accommodate the employee’s healthrelated delay. He contextualized his decision within the broader values of Indian workplace
culture: “Having worked in India, I can say that cultural context plays a major role in how I
make decisions as a leader. Here, we are often guided by the heart rather than by strict rules
or technicalities.” He described the incident:
One of my team members was unwell last week. She had completed a key task,
but due to her health, she was unable to submit the required report on the same
day, as mandated by our department’s policy. Timely report submission is critical
because failure to do so can lead to penalties. However, she approached me
asking for leave, and I told her to take the time she needed. She ended up
submitting the report three days later.
To protect her from institutional penalties, he made a choice that favoured compassion over
procedural rigidity:
To support her, we adjusted the date on the documentation to reflect a delayed
task completion. I knew this wasn’t strictly by the book, but I felt it was more
important to care for my employee’s well-being than to strictly enforce the rule.
He concluded by highlighting the guiding principle behind his decision: “Decisions like this
reflect how much weight we place on empathy, compassion, and supporting one another
during difficult times.” This account exemplifies motivational displacement (Held, 2006),

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where the leader consciously set aside bureaucratic requirements to prioritize the needs of
another. It reflects a form of care-based leadership where ethics are rooted not in uniform rule
enforcement, but in attentiveness to human vulnerability and relational trust.
For Hemant (transport business owner), care manifested both in formal business
decisions and in the personal ways he supported his drivers. He explained: “My business
relies heavily on our delivery drivers, and I have always believed that if they are content and
supported, the business will naturally thrive.” His care extended beyond work: “If one of my
drivers is getting married and needs financial help, I offer support; if someone is struggling to
get their child admitted to school, I do what I can to assist.” Even in high-risk logistical
operations, he refused to let employees face danger alone. During a flood emergency, he
personally accompanied drivers, stating, “This was not a symbolic gesture, but a decision
grounded in empathy and shared accountability.” These examples illustrate how care in
leadership encourages educational leaders to move beyond hierarchical, top-down models to
embrace collaborative leadership styles that emphasize relationships and connections
(Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016).
Finally, an example of care emerged in the reflections of Ritu (school principal) who
was tasked with implementing a government initiative called “Donate Your Time” (Indian
Express, 2021) following the pandemic. The initiative required teachers to arrive at school an
hour earlier each day to help students recover from learning loss during extended closures.
While the principal initially complied with the directive, she soon recognized a misalignment
between policy intent and community reality. She explained:
After the pandemic, when schools reopened, a government initiative called
Donate Your Time was introduced, asking teachers to arrive one hour early each
day to help students recover from the learning loss caused by school closures. As
a principal, I initially implemented this as instructed. However, we soon observed

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that although teachers arrived by 9:30 AM, the students did not begin arriving
until 10:30 AM, which was the original start time of the school day.
Seeking to understand the root cause, she consulted the school community and discovered a
cultural barrier that the policy had overlooked:
Upon inquiring further, we learned that most of our students belonged to a deeply
religious and conservative community. Each morning, before school, they
participated in religious lessons that ended only around 10:00 AM. It became
evident that asking them to arrive earlier was not only impractical but also
insensitive to their cultural and religious obligations.
Faced with this insight, she made a decision grounded not in compliance, but in care:
As an educator, my first responsibility is to ensure that every child receives the
education they deserve. If a policy, however well-meaning, fails to support that
goal in practice, then it must be adapted. I decided that there was little point in
asking teachers to donate time in the morning if it did not benefit the students.
This decision was driven by care: care for the students’ realities, their routines,
and their right to a meaningful learning experience.
This action exemplifies situational care, where leaders adjust institutional expectations to
align with the lived experiences of those they serve. According to Louis et al. (2016) “Caring
is situational and therefore variable, idiosyncratic, and dynamic” (p. 314). This means that
caring behaviours and relationships depend on the particular context and needs of individuals
involved at a given moment (Louis et al., 2016). Rather than enforcing a one-size-fits-all
mandate, the principal responded with ethical flexibility centring the community’s cultural
identity and preserving the integrity of the learning environment. Her leadership reflects
sensitivity to the relational and cultural dimensions of education, ensuring that equity is not
only a matter of access, but also of respect for diverse ways of life.

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Across the cohort, leaders demonstrated the ethic of care in a variety of ways. This
included supporting students by acknowledging transportation limitations, offering staff
flexibility by adjusting institutional policies, and creating opportunities for all parties to share
their perspectives and reach balanced resolutions, modifying documents, traveling with
drivers during dangerous conditions, or adjusting policies to meet student needs, these
responses reflect a culturally rooted ethic of care centred on empathy, relational
responsibility, and responsiveness. The next section discusses the ethic of care from the
perspective of the Canada-based cohort. The findings revealed that three out of five
immigrant leaders demonstrated the ethic of care.
4.7 Ethic of Care: Canada-Based Cohort
Among Indian immigrant leaders working in Canada, this ethic was demonstrated
through thoughtful and compassionate leadership practices that placed human well-being,
trust, and dignity at the forefront of their professional environments. While these leaders
operated in more structured environments than their counterparts in India, they still made
deliberate choices to prioritize care over blind adherence to policy when people's needs,
struggles, and trust were at stake.
One clear expression of care appeared in the reflections of Sachin, an IT [Information
Technology] coordinator responsible for managing software subscription renewals. When he
became aware of a promotional offer that could benefit a long-standing client though
technically restricted to new customers, he chose transparency and trust over strict adherence
to company policy. He described the situation:
One of our oldest clients had all of their office subscriptions managed through us,
and their renewal was scheduled for November, as it had been every year.
However, at the same time, there was a new promotional offer: any client
renewing in the last two weeks of December would receive a 20 percent discount

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on their subscriptions… I immediately faced a moral dilemma, according to
company policy, this offer was intended for new customers, and we were not
supposed to inform our existing clients.
Despite the company’s directive, the coordinator explained his decision to prioritize care and
loyalty:
Considering the deep relationship, we had built with this client over many years, I
felt a strong ethical responsibility to prioritize their well-being. It was clear to me
that acting solely based on the technical policy would disregard the trust and
loyalty this client had shown to us.
Instead of silence, he chose transparency:
I instructed my team member to transparently share the details of the upcoming
promotion with the client, along with a full breakdown of costs and the
implications of delaying the renewal including the risk of operating without the
necessary software for two weeks.
Although the client ultimately chose to renew on schedule, the coordinator emphasized that
the decision to disclose the promotion came from a place of care:
For me as a leader, it was deeply satisfying to know that I had acted ethically by
placing the relationship, trust, and well-being of the client above strict adherence
to an impersonal company policy. By prioritizing care over convenience, I
reinforced a relationship built on transparency, respect, and genuine concern for
the client's best interests.
This scenario illustrates two core elements of the ethic of care: motivational displacement,
where the one caring for another act on his or her behalf in a selfless way by prioritizing the
needs and experiences of the cared for over their own; and authenticity, which involves

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openness, transparency, and genuine engagement in the caregiving relationship (Louis et al.,
2016).
Sachin also demonstrated care in the context of employee recognition. When two
employees tied for top performance in a reward program, budget limitations meant only one
could be awarded the prize. Rather than using a random or strictly procedural method, he
considered the personal significance of the reward to each individual: “Two employees
achieved the same sales figures, and technically, both deserved to win. However, we had not
planned for a tie and did not have the budget for two prizes.”
He explained the thoughtful process behind his choice:
This decision was guided primarily by care and consideration for individual
circumstances. The employee who did not receive the prize already owned an
Apple Watch, the item designated as the reward. It felt more meaningful to award
the prize to someone who would genuinely benefit from it, rather than to someone
who might not value it as much.
The winning employee was also new to the company, and the coordinator saw an opportunity
to foster long-term growth:
The winning employee was a newcomer who had demonstrated exceptional
performance, and we believed that recognizing his efforts at this early stage in his
career would have a greater positive impact on his growth and confidence.
This choice reflects care as a motivational force anchored not in equal distribution, but in
thoughtful attention to what will meaningfully support and inspire individuals. Rather than
reducing fairness to uniformity, the Sachin upheld care by honouring the emotional and
developmental impact of recognition.

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Care was also demonstrated in how the Sachin mentored a college intern facing
punctuality issues. Although the intern was repeatedly late, the coordinator sought
understanding before judgment. He recounted:
One of our interns… had a reporting time of 8:00 AM. I observed that he
frequently arrived around 8:30 AM. After monitoring this pattern for two weeks, I
decided to have a conversation with him, given that our organization maintains a
strict punctuality policy.
The intern’s explanation revealed the strain of balancing academic and professional demands:
The intern explained that he was taking online courses to complete his final
semester. After finishing his internship duties each day, he dedicated his evenings
to studying, which disrupted his sleep schedule and made it difficult for him to
catch the early bus to work.
Rather than penalize him, the coordinator drew on his own experience: “Recalling my own
experiences as a student balancing academics and work, I felt a deep sense of empathy for his
situation.” His solution reflected both flexibility and integrity:
I decided to extend a measure of flexibility. I allowed the intern a daily 30-minute
grace period, enabling him to report by 8:30 AM for the remainder of his
internship. This small adjustment acknowledged his personal struggles without
compromising the integrity of his work.
The decision embodied the core of the ethic of care, as noted by Noddings (2003). A central
tenet of care ethics is the cultivation of empathy and compassion. Sachin demonstrated this
by attuning himself to the experiences and realities of the intern working under his
supervision. He explained: “Through this decision, I recognized his individual needs, valued
his efforts, and provided the necessary support for him to succeed both academically and
professionally.” This act of leadership, grounded in responsiveness and trust, illustrates that

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care is not about leniency, but rather an intentional effort to see situations from an alternative
perspective (Noddings, 2003). It emphasizes a relational and context sensitive approach to
professionalism (Gilligan, 1982).
An expression of the ethic of care surfaced in the reflections of Abhi (operations
manager) responsible for overseeing equipment relocation and site maintenance. In both
instances, the manager demonstrated a leadership approach that prioritized the physical
safety, emotional trust, and dignity of workers even when such care required deviations from
standard protocols. The first scenario occurred during a warehouse relocation project, where
the manager was instructed to dismantle and transfer all safety equipment before completing
the rest of the move. While the remaining tasks were deemed low-risk by upper management,
Abhi made a different judgment based on his values and responsibilities as a leader. Even
though the decision primarily guided by ethic of justice the resolution of this ethical dilemma
also demonstrated ethic of care at play. He explained:
Beyond the formal regulations, my decision was deeply rooted in concern for the
well-being of my team. Even though my manager minimized the risk by
emphasizing that the remaining tasks involved lifting lighter items, I was
unwilling to expose my team to even the slightest potential hazard. I understood
that accidents can happen unpredictably, and access to safety equipment can make
a critical difference.
Rather than send the wrong message to his newly formed team, he made an intentional and
symbolic decision:
As a new leader eager to earn the trust of my team, I did not want to send a
message that their safety was negotiable. By rearranging the task order to ensure
that safety equipment would remain accessible until the final stage of the move, I
demonstrated to my team that their health and security were a priority, not an

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afterthought. This action fostered a sense of trust, showing that I valued their
dignity and welfare above simply following orders or appearing efficient.
This example illustrates a form of care that highlights the moral significance of dependency,
vulnerability, and relational obligations (Held, 2006). The ethic of care contributes to
fostering collaboration, enhancing morale, and promoting better social outcomes (Owens and
Ennis, 2005).
A second instance further reveals his caring orientation during physically demanding
work. While temporarily covering for an ill colleague, the manager found himself overseeing
a high-stakes maintenance operation involving the movement of heavy parts such as engines
and transmissions. Despite performance targets set by upper management, he adjusted
expectations in favour of worker well-being:
One time, one of our managers was seriously sick and had to take a leave for a
few weeks, so I had to take over his tasks. During this time, I was responsible for
overseeing all the maintenance personnel on the site. At that time, we were in the
process of changing the racking configurations, and heavy parts like engines and
transmissions had to be moved into the new racking. Based on the instructions
from the upper management, I was told that we had to complete a certain number
of parts per hour per day. However, the nature of the work was quite critical and
physically demanding. Recognizing the potential strain and risk to my workers, I
made the decision not to strictly enforce the parts-per-hour-per-day rule. Instead, I
allowed them to work at their own pace and to take breaks as needed so that they
could prioritize their safety over simply getting the work done.
In reflecting on his decision, Abhi made his values clear:
Usually, I am a rule follower, but this time, I chose to be more lenient because I
firmly believe that the health, safety, and well-being of my workers must come

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before all else. It was important to me to support my team by creating a safe
environment where they could perform their best without unnecessary pressure.
Both narratives reflect how ethic of care engage in restorative practices that foster healing,
understanding, and accountability, promoting trust and community cohesion (Wachtel &
McCold, 2000). Abhi choice underscore that care is also about relational interdependence,
empathy, and compassion as foundational elements, which enable him to create safe and
supportive environment (Gilligan, 1982; Held, 2006).
An important demonstration of the ethic of care came from Rishi (team supervisor)
who managed a recurring workplace conflict involving a high-performing employee. Despite
her consistent lateness, the employee was well-regarded for her excellent work. The
supervisor faced an ethical dilemma when other employees began to interpret her punctuality
issues as favouritism, raising concerns about fairness and team morale. Instead of
immediately using disciplinary action, the supervisor chose a compassionate and open
conversation approach:
My first instinct was to approach the situation with care rather than judgment. I
began by giving her verbal intimations and decided to have one-on-one
conversations to understand the root cause of her lateness. Through these
discussions, we found out that she was simply a little disorganized by nature, and
there was no malicious intent behind her behaviour.
Instead of seeing her behaviour as wrongdoing, the supervisor focused on understanding her
situation and offering guidance:
Although her intentions were not harmful, I realized that her actions were
unintentionally affecting the broader team dynamics. Throughout this process, my
priority remained to address the situation with compassion and to guide her
toward improvement rather than penalize her.

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This approach demonstrates the ethic of care through empathetic listening and conflict
resolution. The supervisor centred relationship-building and emotional understanding, which
not only supported the employee’s growth but also preserved team cohesion (Louis et al.,
2016). Care-oriented leaders use open discussion, empathy, and efforts to make amends to
rebuild trust and strengthen the community (Thorsborne and Blood, 2013).
In a second example, the same supervisor demonstrated care in decision-making at the
policy level while working in a financial services firm. The issue involved a general checklist
required for all insurance transactions; a procedural safeguard designed to ensure customers
are informed of policy terms. While effective in theory, the checklist created frustration for
clients during simple policy renewals. The supervisor reflected:
We have a general checklist that team members are advised to follow every time a
customer takes an insurance policy. This checklist ensures that all critical aspects,
what is included, what is excluded, payment terms, expiry dates, and conditions
are properly communicated to the customer.
However, the application of this process became problematic in cases where no changes had
been made to a policy:
We noticed that during simple renewals, team members often omitted adding the
checklist to the customer’s document file. Upon inquiry, it became clear that
customers, during renewals without any changes to their policy, found the
checklist redundant and frustrating, seeing it as yet another document to sign
unnecessarily.
Seeing the human side of this procedural burden, the supervisor revised the approach:
Understanding this situation from a position of empathy and care, I decided to
relax the policy and allow employees not to include the checklist for simple

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renewals, provided that no terms or conditions had changed and that the original
checklist was properly signed when the policy was initially taken.
He clarified that the decision stemmed from a desire to reduce unnecessary friction: “My goal
was to reduce unnecessary frustration for customers and to make processes smoother and
more humane for both clients and employees.” This decision reflects Providing care means
making thoughtful decisions in real situations by understanding the people and relationships
involved (Held, 2006). Instead of clinging to formality for its own sake, the supervisor
responded to the lived experiences of clients and frontline staff. By listening to feedback and
adjusting practices, he exemplified how care in leadership means making systems more
responsive, compassionate, and human (Louis et al., 2016).
Across these diverse contexts, Indian immigrant leaders in Canada expressed the
Ethic of Care through personalized, empathetic, and morally attuned decisions. Their actions
consistently sought to uphold the dignity of others, minimize harm, and foster trust in both
hierarchical and peer relationships. The next section discusses the ethic of community from
the perspective of the India-based cohort. The findings revealed that four out of five
immigrant leaders demonstrated the ethic of community.
4.8 Ethic of Community: India-Based Cohort
The Ethic of Community emphasizes collective well-being, inclusive decisionmaking, and the cultivation of shared responsibility. It reflects a worldview in which
individuals are not seen as isolated actors but as members of interconnected groups (Furman,
2004). Among Indian professionals in leadership roles, this ethic was evident not only in how
decisions were made, but also in how leadership was experienced and expressed. The
importance of preserving institutional harmony, respecting cultural relationships, and
ensuring that decisions serve the larger group was a consistent thread across the interviews.
These leaders understood their ethical responsibility as extending beyond rules and outcomes,

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reaching into the emotional and relational dimensions of the communities they led (Furman,
2004; Barcinas & Fleener, 2023).
One of the expressions of community leadership came from Ravi (Principal of an
Industrial Training Institute), who emphasized inclusive decision-making in high-stakes
institutional situations. When government authorities assigned last-minute duties, he avoided
authoritarian responses and instead brought his team into the process:
I very strongly believe that we are a community at work more than just
colleagues, we function as a family. Whenever a new task is assigned to our
institution, particularly those mandated by the government, I make it a point to
bring all staff members together for a meeting. I explain the nature of the task, the
timelines involved, and any constraints we must work within. After presenting the
full picture, we discuss together how best to approach it. The decision on how we
will complete the task is always made collectively, as a team.
This quote illustrates shared responsibility as a key aspect of the ethic of community, where
moral agency is distributed across all members of a community rather than centred in a single
leader (Furman, 2004). His leadership is not about delegating top-down instructions but
facilitating consensus and instilling shared ownership. In his words, “When we succeed, it is
a collective success. When something goes wrong, we share that responsibility too.” This
orientation aligns with Furman’s (2004) framework that defines ethical leadership as a
communal process of mutual accountability rather than isolated decision-making.
Ravi also described the moral imperative of protecting his staff from institutional
blame:
There is a lot of uncertainty in government roles, and often tasks are allocated
without prior training or preparation. This understandably causes hesitation or
anxiety among staff. That is why I make it a priority to ensure that everyone

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knows they have a voice in the process and that they are not alone. When they see
that I will stand by them, they are more confident to step forward.
This quote reflects a key dimension of the ethic of community, which emphasizes inclusive
and participatory governance, especially in situations characterized by complexity and
unpredictability (Furman, 2004; Mindell, 2002).
Ritu, a school principal in a tribal region of India offered a poignant example of how
communal ethics guide delicate personnel decisions. When a senior teacher requested to
move from lower to higher grades after years of service, the principal had to weigh individual
merit against institutional continuity. She reflected:
Her presence in grades 1 and 2 has had a transformative effect: we’ve seen
significant improvement in early grade learning outcomes and, importantly, a
notable increase in student retention, an issue of ongoing concern in our region,
where early dropout rates are alarmingly high. To resolve the tension this caused,
I invited both teachers for a transparent and respectful dialogue. I explained the
rationale behind my decision, placing emphasis on how vital the early learning
environment is for the entire school’s long-term success. I also reassured the
teacher who stayed in the lower grades that her work is deeply valued and that her
role is central to the success of our collective mission.
Her leadership demonstrates that the ethic of community relies on communication,
reciprocity, open dialogue, and collaboration (Furman, 2002). She explained, “During our
meeting, I ensured that the final decision would be based on our collective agreement, and
everyone’s opinion would be respected and considered”.
A second example from Ritu shows how cultural sensitivity can be integrated into
formal education policy through communal reasoning. After the COVID-19 pandemic, a
state-wide initiative called “Donate Your Time” (Indian Express, 2021) asked teachers to

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begin school an hour earlier to help make up for lost instructional time. However, this
conflicted with the students' morning religious obligations: “Most of our students cannot
come to school early. It is not that they are unwilling, but they have family and religious
responsibilities that must be respected.” Rather than enforce the new schedule mechanically,
she gathered input from staff and proposed a culturally appropriate alternative:
We decided to reduce the lunch break by 30 minutes and extend the school day
from 5:30 PM to 6:00 PM. This way, teachers still contributed additional
instructional time, but in a manner that synchronized with when students were
actually present and ready to learn.
This action shows leadership rooted in cultural empathy and communal time consciousness,
illustrating how education systems can honour spiritual and familial rhythms while fulfilling
policy mandates.
Hemant (transport business owner) articulated how the ethic of community manifests
in long-term relationships with employees and clients. His leadership is built not on contracts,
but trust:
I have learned that being too rigid with rules and policies can be
counterproductive. Instead, I focus on nurturing a culture of mutual respect and
interdependence, where both employees and clients feel seen, heard, and
appreciated... Whether I’m making a decision about supporting an employee or
accommodating a client’s special request, I do so with an understanding that
preserving relational harmony often serves the long-term health of the
organization and the community it functions within.
His philosophy of “loyalty goes both ways” reflects relational reciprocity as a shared cultural
value and a principle of mutual responsibility (Furman., 2004).

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Kiran (executive engineer) offered another expression of community ethics by
choosing discretion over discipline:
Another key aspect of decision-making in our context is the importance of
relationships. Maintaining harmony within the team often takes precedence, even
over administrative correctness. As we say in India, sometimes you must follow
narowa kujawa, meaning “neither here nor there,” to navigate difficult situations
without escalating conflict. I believe a strong leader in our cultural setting is one
who prioritizes relational stability. Many times, our team’s ability to function
smoothly depends more on trust, mutual respect, and emotional balance than on
strict adherence to tasks. In this way, leadership is as much about preserving
social cohesion as it is about executing institutional responsibilities.
Finally, Ritu (school principal) described how she honours institutional hierarchy not
out of formality, but as a as part of honouring her culture:
Having worked in India, I have found that leadership and decision-making are
deeply influenced by cultural expectations of collectivism, respect, and relational
harmony. One key aspect of Indian leadership culture is the importance placed on
consulting elders and superiors before making significant decisions. This is not
merely a procedural formality, it is a reflection of a broader cultural value system
that regards inclusion and respect within hierarchical relationships as essential to
ethical leadership. In my own practice, I make it a point to consult my superiors
whenever I am faced with a major decision or conflict, even when I am confident
about the solution or can resolve the issue independently. Involving them is not
only about guidance, but about honouring their position, acknowledging their
experience, and reinforcing the interconnectedness of our roles. In our context,

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seeking input even when the likely response is already known is a meaningful
gesture of respect and solidarity.
Ritu also described how shared responsibility, communal values, and collaborative decision
making, which are central to the ethic of community, are practiced in her leadership
(Crawford, 2017).
In my school, we function very much like a family, and this spirit of togetherness
shapes how I lead. The majority of the decisions I make, especially those involving ethical
dilemmas are made collaboratively with my staff. I believe that when a decision impacts
others, especially my colleagues and teachers, it is not only respectful but also necessary to
involve them in the process. Whenever we are faced with a conflict or a complex situation,
we come together as a team to discuss the issue openly. We explore different viewpoints,
identify the needs of everyone involved, and work toward a solution that benefits the whole
school community. This collective approach ensures that no one feels excluded and that the
final decision reflects a shared understanding and commitment. The next section discusses
the ethic of community from the perspective of the Canada-based cohort. The findings
revealed that four out of five immigrant leaders demonstrated the ethic of community.
4.9 Ethic of Community: Canada-Based Cohort
Among Indian immigrant leaders working in Canada, the ethic of community
emerged through their reflections and was consistently described in terms of dialogue,
transparency, and decision making that reflected the needs and voices of the broader group.
Taha an administrator of a religious institution, overseeing a congregation of over forty
nationalities, described how cultural diversity required an ethical lens grounded in mutual
respect. He shared,
As the administrator of a religious institution serving individuals from
approximately 45 nationalities, I regularly encounter the complexity of honoring

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diverse traditions, cultural expectations, and jurisprudential interpretations. In this
setting, leadership is not just about procedural correctness, it is about building
trust, maintaining harmony, and fostering a sense of belonging for all members of
the community.
This sentiment was illustrated when he navigated a disagreement over the date of Eid, a
conflict shaped by divergent theological and cultural interpretations. Rather than impose a
unilateral decision, he engaged both sides in dialogue.
As a leader responsible for the spiritual and emotional cohesion of a highly
diverse congregation, I had to recognize that this was not merely a logistical issue,
it was about honouring deeply rooted traditions and identities. Rather than
imposing a decision, I chose to engage in dialogue with representatives from both
groups. I emphasized our shared values and the importance of unity, reiterating
that while we may come from different traditions, we are part of one community.
This approach helped reduce polarization, sustain respectful engagement, and
reaffirmed the idea that everyone’s perspective matters in shaping our shared
space.
His approach highlights how emphases on open dialogue, respect and collaboration are
primary community-based ethical leadership (Furman, 2002). This commitment to inclusion
extended into everyday decisions. The same administrator explained,
As a leader, I firmly believe in the power of collective wisdom and shared
responsibility. In our organization, we operate as a team, and my approach is
always to include others in decision-making, especially when those decisions
directly impact them. Our board comprises seven members, each responsible for
different committees. Before taking any decision, I consult the relevant committee
and ask them to evaluate possible options and outcomes. Together, we brainstorm

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and deliberate, ensuring that all voices are heard, even from those who are not
part of formal committees. While justice is my guiding principle, I am also deeply
aware of the relational context in which these decisions are made. In a
multicultural religious space, people’s perceptions of fairness are closely tied to
their sense of belonging and inclusion.
He elaborated that decisions must be not only right, but also understandable and inclusive:
“Even when people disagree with my decisions, they are more likely to accept them if they
feel heard, respected, and included in the reasoning process.” In community-based ethical
leadership, the health of the system depends on everyone having opportunities and
developing the capacity to engage in and practice a shared form of governance (Barcinas &
Fleener, 2023).
Leaders in other sectors offered similar insights. Sachin (IT coordinator) reflected on
how leadership in Canada had reshaped his approach to ethics.
Having worked in Canada for more than five years now, I have observed
significant differences in the practice of ethical leadership compared to my
experiences in India. One of the most prominent changes I have embraced is a
stronger commitment to the ethic of community.
He described how Canadian leadership culture emphasized participatory structures: “In
Canada, leadership typically involves those who will be affected by a decision in the
decision-making process.” This shift encouraged him to adopt a more collaborative
leadership style, focused on collective outcomes rather than positional authority. This
collaborative orientation was reflected in his daily leadership practice.
In my role, I work closely with a team, and a significant part of my leadership
approach involves fostering collective decision-making. Whenever I am required

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to make decisions that directly affect my team members or the clients they serve, I
prioritize involving everyone impacted by the decision.
He explained that consultation was more than a formality, it was an ethical responsibility.
“By promoting transparency and shared ownership, I strengthen trust within the team and
reinforce the collective responsibility we all share toward our work and clients.”
In another example, the Sachin described how he used an award decision as an
opportunity to reinforce community values.
Beyond caring for individual needs, this decision was also rooted in my
responsibility toward the broader workplace community. Rewarding a newer
employee was a strategic way to encourage not only him but also other new
employees who might look up to his achievement. Although the more experienced
employee did not receive the main prize, he was honoured through a certificate,
public appreciation, and a formal letter of recognition.
He noted that he took into account the broader impact of his decision, aiming to ensure it
would benefit all members of the institution rather than just a single individual (Furman,
1998).
A compelling reflection on the shift toward community-oriented leadership came
from Abhi (operations manager) who had worked in both India and Canada. Drawing from
over five years of Canadian experience, he described how his understanding of ethical
leadership had fundamentally transformed in this new context.
Having worked in Canada for over five years now, I can clearly see how my
understanding of ethical leadership has shifted, especially in relation to
community engagement and decision-making. In Canada, leadership practices
emphasize involving those who are affected by decisions, encouraging feedback,
and fostering a collaborative environment.

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This shift became especially apparent when he compared the hierarchical leadership norms of
India with the participatory culture of his Canadian workplace:
For example, in India, leadership often operates hierarchically where decisions are
made behind closed doors, and employees are expected to comply without
questioning the process. However, in Canada, you cannot simply walk into your
office and instruct your workers to complete a task by the end of the day without
consultation or consent. Back in India, I believed that strong leaders take
decisions independently.
He emphasized that in Canada, leadership must consider not just the completion of tasks, but
the readiness and well-being of those expected to carry them out: “Leadership here requires
considering whether employees are willing to work on certain projects, whether they are
available for overtime, and whether their rights and well-being are respected.” The principle
of shared leadership extended even to senior levels of management. He described how plant
managers modelled inclusive decision-making:
I have also noticed that in Canada, even the highest-ranking leaders, like plant
managers, engage in consultation. For instance, the plant manager still seeks
suggestions from the operations manager before setting targets, which is very
different from the rigid, top-down decision-making structures I experienced in
India.
This consultative environment, he explained, had tangible effects on team dynamics and
morale: “This collaborative approach ensures that leadership is shared, the workforce feels
valued, and the goals are set with collective input rather than imposed unilaterally.” While he
acknowledged missing aspects of Indian work culture, such as familial closeness among
teams, he also appreciated the clarity and fairness introduced by professional boundaries:
“Although I miss how, in India, teams felt like an extended family beyond work, I now

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recognize that clear boundaries between personal and professional life strengthen fairness and
respect within the workplace community in Canada.”
In this narrative, the ethic of community is not simply a theoretical ideal but a lived
practice embodied through inclusive consultation, shared responsibility, and respect for
personal dignity in the workplace. His reflections offer cross-cultural insights into how
ethical leadership evolves across contexts, reshaped by institutional norms and cultural
expectations. He also emphasized peer consultation in decision-making.
Although I do not frequently discuss my dilemmas with my superiors, as I feel
they have grown more aligned with organizational profitability than the ground
realities of shop-floor operations, I do consult one of my subordinates who serves
as a supervisor.
He added that the supervisor’s connection with workers offered valuable insight: “When he
disagrees with my decision, it pushes me to reevaluate my choices and gain a broader
perspective, ultimately contributing to more balanced and fair outcomes for the team.”
Rishi (team supervisor) also practiced community-centred ethics. He described how
decisions about punctuality were designed to strengthen morale rather than punish: “We
added punctuality as one of the aspects in our annual reward program, where employees are
already recognized for achievements like best employee, highest sales, or best customer
service.” He explained that the goal was to “motivate the latecomer to improve her
punctuality without feeling singled out” while uplifting the entire team. He addressed
inequality in walk-in client distribution through cooperative retraining. “This solution
promoted a stronger sense of teamwork and community within the team while also
supporting the company's overall growth.”
Across these varied experiences, Indian immigrant leaders in Canada consistently
demonstrated a strong commitment to inclusive decision-making, transparent communication,

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and collective well-being. They did not view leadership as issuing orders from above, but as
fostering environments where people felt heard, respected, and supported. Their leadership
upheld the ethic of community by prioritizing group harmony, cultivating institutional trust,
and embedding fairness into both everyday interactions and long-term strategy. The next
section discusses the ethic of self- care from the perspective of the India-based cohort. The
findings revealed that only one out of five immigrant leaders demonstrated the ethic of selfcare.
4.10 Ethic of Self-Care: India-Based Cohort
The ethic of self-care, as articulated within the multiple ethical paradigm framework
(Hoare et al., 2024), acknowledges that ethical leadership must also attend to the mental,
emotional physical and spiritual well-being and boundaries of the leader. It challenges the
myth of self-sacrificial leadership by recognizing that those who care for others must also
care for themselves to lead with clarity, sustainability, and authenticity (Hoare et al, 2024).
Among Indian professionals in public leadership roles, the ethic of self-care emerges as a
quiet but critical thread especially when leaders find themselves in ethically burdensome
positions with limited institutional support.
Ravi, a principal of a government-run Industrial Training Institute, reflected on a
continuous internal struggle he experiences:
I frequently encounter an ethical dilemma in my role as principal of a
government-run technical institution, where we do not receive overtime pay or
compensation for additional duties. Beyond our core responsibilities of teaching,
training, and managing the institution, we are often assigned a wide range of
government duties. These include conducting population surveys, staffing COVID
testing centres, assisting with elections at all levels, and supporting disaster

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management efforts. These duties are essential, but they place a heavy burden on
an already understaffed team.
The principal is not only responsible for leading an educational institution but is also
expected to perform extensive external functions for the state without additional support or
recognition. These expectations create an ethical burden that exceeds standard role
obligations, particularly when decisions must be made about how to distribute that burden
among equally exhausted staff. He continued,
The most difficult aspect of this situation is knowing that whatever decision I
make, it will feel unfair to someone. For example, when 70 percent of our staff
were assigned to election duty, the remaining 30 percent had to keep the entire
institution running on their own. Soon after, a new government assignment came
up, and many of the same staff were again selected. This led to frustration. Those
chosen for repeated external duties felt exploited, while those left behind resented
having to carry the full weight of institutional responsibilities.
His leadership is marked by an awareness that every action he takes could cause strain or
resentment, yet he refuses to disengage or delegate thoughtlessly. He adds:
I am expected to accept that all staff are overworked and underpaid, as if this is
simply the reality of the government system and that nothing can be done to
change it. My response has been to engage in open dialogue with higher
authorities and the selection committee, requesting a more rotational approach to
staff assignments. I advocate for selecting different individuals for each new duty
so that the same people are not burdened repeatedly. This is not always possible,
but when I can, I try to implement it.
He concludes with a recognition of moral complexity:

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Many times, I feel guilty for making imperfect choices as a leader because there is
no clear or fully just solution. I am constantly navigating structural constraints
that make fairness difficult to achieve. Yet I choose not to ignore or minimize
these tensions. Instead, I reflect, listen, and act with that awareness in mind. I also
accept that, in many situations, there is no simple or entirely satisfactory solution.
His reflection highlights the one of the aspect of ethic of self-care as suggested by Michel
Foucault (1997) as an ongoing process of personal critical reflection. Ravi’s reflection reveals
that ethical leadership can carry a significant emotional burden. Despite expectations to
accept worker exploitation as a systemic norm, he chooses to challenge it. Rather than
passively accepting this reality, he responds with resilience and transparency, remaining
committed to his ongoing ethical development as a leader (webb, 2021). The next section
discusses the ethic of self-care from the perspective of the Canada-based cohort. The findings
revealed that only one out of five immigrant leaders demonstrated the ethic of self-care.
4.11 Ethic of Self-Care: Canada-Based Cohort
In the Canada-based cohort, this ethic emerged through a poignant reflection by an
administrator of a religious institution, who offered a deeply introspective account of how his
understanding of leadership evolved over time and across cultural contexts. He began by
explaining how his journey into leadership was not driven by personal ambition but by
communal need.
After working in Canada for over 14 years, I have come to realize that my
understanding of ethical leadership has significantly shifted; particularly in
relation to my own emotional wellbeing. When I first stepped into a leadership
role, it was not out of ambition but rather necessity. No one else was willing to
take the responsibility, so at the board's request, I accepted it.

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He explained that while he valued the work and its purpose, the emotional demands began to
erode his inner balance.
Over time, I learned that leadership, at least in my context, demanded an
emotional resilience that deeply challenged me. I am someone who takes criticism
to heart. When others disagree with my decisions or express frustration, I find
myself affected to the point that it disrupts my peace of mind. I used to stay
awake at night, replaying conversations, feeling the weight of judgment, and
questioning whether my decisions had hurt someone unintentionally. The constant
emotional strain began to affect my sense of balance and clarity. It also impacted
my effectiveness as a leader. I realized that to preserve my mental and emotional
health, I needed to set clear boundaries. I chose to step away from formal
decision-making positions, not because I lacked commitment, but because I
recognized that constantly bearing the emotional load of leadership was
unsustainable for me.
The decision illustrates a key dimension of the ethic of self-care, which holds that leaders are
accountable for maintaining their mental, physical, and spiritual well-being, while also
fostering individual autonomy and personal growth (Webb, 2021). By choosing to protect his
emotional health, he made space for others to lead and for himself to continue contributing in
a way that felt sustainable. “Now, I offer support wherever needed, but without the pressures
of being at the centre of governance. This decision reflects not weakness, but selfawareness.” The ethic of self-care is fundamentally a deeply personal and individual practice
centred on developing oneself morally and ethically rather than imposing one’s beliefs on
others (Hoare et al., 2024). The next section discusses the ethic of profession from the
perspective of the India-based cohort. The findings revealed that three out of five immigrant
leaders demonstrated the ethic of profession.

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4.12 Ethic of Profession: India-Based Cohort
The Ethic of Profession is grounded in a leader’s commitment to uphold the
responsibilities, standards, and integrity specific to their professional role. It calls on leaders
to demonstrate not only ethical intention but also professional competence and accountability
to the institutions they serve (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016). In the India-based cohort, this
ethic was strongly present in the voices of those who led within technical, industrial, and
logistical contexts. Their narratives reflect a deep respect for process, accuracy, and the
ethical weight of professional judgment, especially when these principles came into tension
with institutional pressure, operational complexity, or interpersonal dynamics.
A compelling example of this ethic was offered by Pavan, an Operational Excellence
Engineer working in the pharmaceutical manufacturing sector. He recalled a situation where
his supervisor asked him to prepare a vendor report for a facility that had not engaged any
vendors. He responded:
When my supervisor asked me to prepare a vendor report for our plant, I
explained that it would not be appropriate to do so, as we had not invited any
vendor to our plant. Despite this, I was instructed to proceed with the report.
However, I respectfully declined the request and reminded my supervisor that,
according to our company policy, only the vendor is authorized to prepare such a
report. Ultimately, I redirected the request to another plant that had indeed invited
a vendor and was therefore qualified to prepare the report.
This decision highlights a principled refusal to comply with a directive that would
compromise procedural integrity. The engineer did not escalate the issue nor confront his
supervisor aggressively. Instead, he maintained respect while protecting the professional
boundaries of his role. The same engineer elaborated on the necessity of independent thinking
in his role:

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Because my role is highly specialized, I make most decisions independently,
relying on my experience, knowledge, and analysis. While I consult with crossfunctional teams like operations, production, and quality assurance, I take their
input as part of a broader evaluation. Each department naturally prioritizes its own
interests, so the final decision rests with me to ensure all perspectives are
balanced and the decision aligns with professional standards.
His leadership is defined not by isolation but by analytical synthesis. He draws input from
relevant stakeholders but does not delegate ethical responsibility. This careful balancing act
reflects a mature understanding of the profession’s demands and an internalized sense of duty
to both performance and integrity.
A similar ethic was articulated by Kiran, an executive engineer, who described the
nuanced judgment required in his governmental role.
Given the nature of my role, I would say I make about 60 percent of my decisions
independently. This is not because I reject collaboration, but because my position
requires a deep understanding of specialized tasks and situational nuances that are
often specific to my responsibilities. In sensitive matters, I inform or consult with
my superiors not for permission, but for procedural accountability.
Here, the Ethic of Profession is expressed through an intentional commitment to
transparency, even when formal approval is not needed. The engineer’s consultation is not
born of uncertainty, but of an ethical instinct to involve the institutional hierarchy in
decisions that might later come under scrutiny. This dual respect for personal expertise and
institutional process underscores his understanding that professionalism includes both
technical competence and ethical foresight.

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Hemant, a transport business owner echoed this balance in a commercial context. He
described how, in most situations, he did not need to consult others due to the nature of his
operational authority. However, in ethically charged situations, he actively engaged his team.
In most cases, I do not consult others when resolving ethical dilemmas or making
key decisions within my organization. Given the nature of my role, I am
responsible for overseeing operations, ensuring compliance, and maintaining the
professional standards of our service. However, when a case involves a dispute or
human conflict such as an issue between the consignee and the driver about the
condition of a delivery, I always consult the driver directly to understand what
happened before reaching any conclusion.
This practice demonstrates that professional leadership does not exclude relational ethics. His
attention to direct communication and factual clarity indicates a leadership style rooted in
fairness, due diligence, and situational awareness. The next section discusses the ethic of
profession from the perspective of the Canada-based cohort. The findings revealed that three
out of five immigrant leaders demonstrated the ethic of profession.
4.13 Ethic of Profession Canada-Based Cohort
In the Canada-based cohort, the ethic of profession emerged as a strong and consistent
guide for ethical leadership. Leaders across sectors emphasized their commitment to
organizational policies, technical standards, and role-specific responsibilities. Their narratives
reflect a clear understanding of professionalism as not only competence and accountability
but also alignment with institutional expectations and boundaries. While each participant
worked in a different setting, all of them conveyed how professional ethics shaped their
decisions, particularly in moments of conflict, ambiguity, or operational pressure.

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Professional autonomy was central to the reflections of Sachin, an IT coordinator. He
described how specific technical decisions required him to act independently, relying on his
expertise and judgment.
At the same time, there are certain specialized decisions within my role
particularly those related to client contracts, subscription renewals, or policy
changes; where I must exercise professional autonomy. These matters require
specific technical expertise and experience for which I have been hired. In such
cases, I independently assess the situation and make informed decisions,
recognizing that fulfilling my professional responsibilities sometimes requires
swift and expert judgment.
However, he also demonstrated professional humility by recognizing when to seek input.
When faced with unfamiliar dilemmas or when I lack complete information, I
seek advice from my manager to ensure that my decisions remain aligned with
professional standards and organizational expectations. This balance between
independent action and collaborative consultation ensures that my leadership
remains rooted in professional integrity, competence, and accountability.
The same participant reflected on how Canadian professional culture influenced his
understanding of workplace boundaries.
Alongside this enhanced focus on community, I have also observed and adapted
to a clearer understanding of professional boundaries. In Canada, the separation
between personal and professional life is much more distinct than it typically is in
India. Relationships between coworkers, while friendly, usually remain confined
to the workplace. For instance, if you meet a coworker outside of work, such as at
a grocery store, interactions are typically brief and courteous without extending
into personal invitations or gatherings, which would be more common in India.

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This cultural insight extended to time management and respect for work-life boundaries.
Moreover, there is a strong cultural emphasis on respecting working hours. Here,
it is understood that once an employee’s shift ends say, at 5:00 PM their time is
considered their own, dedicated to personal or family matters. Working overtime
is not an unspoken expectation, and employees are more conscious of maintaining
their work-life balance. In contrast, in India, working extra hours is often seen as
a sign of loyalty and dedication, and employees may willingly stay beyond
official hours without formal compensation.
This understanding of boundaries reflects the Ethic of Profession as not only technical but
cultural, shaping how time, space, and relationships are ethically managed in the workplace.
Abhi, an operations manager working in warehouse logistics reinforced the
importance of domain-specific expertise in ethical decision-making.
In my current role, the majority of the ethical dilemmas and decisions I face are
heavily influenced by my professional expertise and responsibilities. As I
mentioned earlier, I work with technologies that I have either introduced or
helped implement in the warehouse, such as the Auto Store system. Because I
possess the most in-depth knowledge of these systems, I believe it is both
appropriate and necessary for me to take independent decisions regarding them.
His approach to leadership evolved as his confidence in professional knowledge increased.
Over time, my decision-making process has evolved: when I started with the
company, it was more of a 50-50 approach, where I discussed approximately half
of my dilemmas collaboratively. However, it has now shifted toward a 60-40 or
even 70-30 split, with the majority of decisions being made independently. I rely
on my specialized knowledge and technical understanding to ensure that the
decisions made are sound, informed, and aligned with professional standards.

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Rishi, a team supervisor also demonstrated this ethic when relaxing a customer
service policy.
While relaxing the policy, I remained mindful of maintaining professional
standards and responsibilities. I ensured that this relaxation would not
compromise the essential principles of our work, such as transparency, informed
consent, and compliance. The decision was framed carefully: the checklist could
only be omitted if the renewal involved no changes to the original policy terms,
and if the original checklist had been properly signed.
He further explained how he balanced responsiveness with regulatory integrity.
This way, I upheld the professional responsibility of safeguarding the
organization's integrity while still adapting processes to meet practical realities. It
was important to maintain a balance between easing customer and employee
experiences and ensuring that all legal and ethical professional requirements were
met.”
Across these reflections, Canadian-based Indian leaders demonstrated that the Ethic of
Profession is both a personal commitment and a systemic obligation. Their narratives
revealed how professionalism is enacted through procedural fidelity, policy awareness,
technical competence, and the ability to balance autonomy with collaboration.

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Chapter 5: Discussion
This chapter presents a comparative examination of the ethical leadership paradigms
demonstrated by Indian professionals in India and Indian immigrant leaders in Canada. It
builds upon the findings by comparing how each ethical paradigm, save the ethics of
discomfort and St’at’imc matriarchal leadership, was observed in both cohorts and by
summarizing key insights shared by participants. The purpose is to explore whether the
process of acculturation influences ethical leadership, and to what extent cultural context
contributes to the development or adaptation of ethical frameworks.
This discussion is structured around the study’s three specific objectives. First, it
identifies and analyses the core ethical principles and practices valued by leaders in India, to
understand the foundational aspects of ethical leadership in the Indian cultural context.
Second, it examines the perceptions of ethical leadership among Indian immigrant leaders in
Canada and evaluates whether their ethical views and practices have shifted through
integration into the Canadian cultural environment. Third, it compares the ethical leadership
paradigms of Indian leaders in India with those of Indian immigrant leaders in Canada,
exploring how ethical perspectives and practices adapt as a result of the acculturation process.
Additionally, this chapter engages with the study’s four research questions, which
guide the analysis of ethical leadership through the lens of multiple ethical paradigms and the
Bird’s Eye View Model. Specifically, the discussion addresses: (1) What core ethical
principles and practices are valued by leaders in India? (2) How do Indian immigrant leaders
in Canada perceive and practice ethical leadership? (3) How have the ethical views and
practices of Indian immigrant leaders in Canada changed because of adapting to the Canadian
cultural environment? and (4) What are the key similarities and differences in the ethical
leadership paradigms between Indian leaders in India and Indian immigrant leaders in
Canada?

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5.1 Comparison of Ethical Paradigms Through the Lens of Acculturation
Acculturation plays a significant role in shaping the leadership perspectives of
individuals who migrate to new cultural contexts (Liang et al., 2021). It is defined as the
phenomena that occur when individuals or groups from different cultures come into
continuous first-hand contact, resulting in changes to the cultural patterns of one or both
groups (Sam & Berry, 2010). This process encompasses a variety of psychological,
behavioural, and identity-related adaptations as individuals navigate intercultural contact.
This section explores how acculturation affects the ethical perspectives of Indian immigrant
professionals working in Canada, comparing their experiences with those of Indian
professionals based in India. The analysis is structured through the lens of distinct ethical
paradigms namely, the ethic of justice, critique, care, community, profession, self-care,
discomfort, and St’at’imc matriarchal leadership ethics. Notably, there was no evidence of
participants demonstrating the ethic of discomfort or St’at’imc matriarchal leadership ethics.
The subsequent sections offer a comparative analysis of each ethical paradigm across both
cohorts starting with ethic of justice.
5.1.1 Comparison: Ethic of Justice
In the India-based cohort, the ethic of justice was evident in the leadership practices
of four out of five participants. This suggests a moderate to strong presence of justiceoriented reasoning in ethical decision making. On the other hand, also in the Canada-based
cohort, the ethic of justice was similarly evident in the leadership practices of four out of five
participants referencing its application in at least one ethical dilemma. This suggests a strong
presence of justice-oriented reasoning in ethical decision making. Both Indian and Canadianbased leaders demonstrated strong commitments to the ethic of justice, but they did so in
contextually distinct ways shaped by their organizational environments. Leaders in India
often applied justice in response to ambiguity or absence of enforceable systems. For

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example, Kiran, an executive engineer, faced political pressure to install unauthorized red
lights on a government vehicle. Despite lacking an enforceable mechanism to resist, he
upheld procedural fairness by escalating the issue through official channels, thereby
protecting institutional integrity, and shielding his team from undue consequences. Hemant, a
transport business owner, navigated prolonged delays faced by his drivers due to undefined
consignee inspection timelines. In the absence of contractual clarity, he introduced a new
system that formalized timelines and responsibilities, promoting procedural justice and
protecting workers from arbitrary delays. Ritu, a school principal, introduced a student
leadership award without predefined criteria, resulting in perceptions of unfairness. To
correct this, she implemented a transparent scorecard system for future evaluations,
demonstrating a commitment to procedural fairness in the face of prior ambiguity. Their
actions reflected a personal commitment to fairness, often requiring them to revise
procedures or challenge informal political pressures. Justice, for them, was about restoring
balance in flawed systems, as seen in their restructuring of work duties, upholding contractual
obligations, and efforts to formalize recognition systems in education.
In contrast, Canadian-based Indian immigrant leaders functioned in rule-bound
environments where justice entailed ensuring that existing procedures were applied fairly and
transparently. Their emphasis was less on reforming broken systems and more on adjusting
structured policies to better serve equity and inclusion. For example, Rishi, a team supervisor,
implemented a lateness policy that applied uniformly to all staff. Rather than penalizing
employees arbitrarily, he introduced a consistent rule with a minor pay deduction after a set
threshold. This policy ensured fairness and transparency while addressing team concerns
about inconsistent enforcement. Abhi, an operations manager, handled performance data
during a robotics rollout by offering two reporting formats, one including idle time and one
excluding it. This adjustment preserved transparency and helped set realistic expectations for

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workers, balancing fairness with organizational benchmarking needs. These leaders
consistently demonstrated procedural and distributive justice by resisting favouritism,
advocating for fair work distribution, and clarifying evaluation standards.
While India-based leaders demonstrated justice through discretionary adaptations,
Canadian-based leaders exhibited justice through structured negotiation and evidence-based
reasoning. Both groups showed high ethical awareness, but Canadian-based Indian immigrant
leaders often relied on organizational protocols and data-driven decisions, whereas Indian
leaders engaged in systemic correction and context-sensitive interpretation.
5.1.2 Comparison: Ethic of Critique
In the India-based cohort, three out of five leaders demonstrated the ethic of critique.
It was moderately prominent and featured in the leadership practices of participants,
particularly in contexts marked by systemic inefficiency, advocating for marginalised
employees, systemic barriers and outdated policies. Leaders routinely challenged institutional
structures when these systems failed to serve their intended purpose or actively perpetuated
inequity. For instance, Ravi, a principal in a government Industrial Training Institute,
repeatedly bent rules to ensure timely salary disbursement for contract workers. He
demonstrated the ethic of critique by challenging the system that perpetuated inequality and
protecting the vulnerable. Similarly, Pavan critiqued infrastructural inadequacies in
pharmaceutical manufacturing that made compliance with formal cleaning procedures
impossible. By modifying workflows and reorganizing workspaces, he made the process
safer and more efficient. Kiran, another Indian engineer, critically examined outdated
categorization policies for suppliers and actively initiated systemic reform by proposing
revised evaluation criteria. Each of these examples illustrates ethical leadership as a reflective
and disruptive force that identifies and seeks to dismantle inequities perpetuated by
organizational norms and institutional policies.

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In contrast, the ethic of critique was less prominent among Canada-based Indian
immigrant leaders, with only two out of five demonstrating this approach. While leaders in
India frequently confronted systemic inefficiency and described recurring ethical dilemmas
when discussing ethic of critique, their Canadian counterparts engaged in critique more
selectively, primarily in response to specific policy shortcomings. Taha, for example,
challenged an accessibility policy that failed to account for temporary disabilities, advocating
for future revisions to promote inclusivity. Similarly, Siya, an assistant store manager, raised
concerns about a system that prioritized availability over merit and protected long-tenured
employees at the expense of accountability. Her leadership involved a sustained interrogation
of institutional norms that, despite their neutral appearance, produced unjust outcomes. These
examples suggest that the Canada-based participants engaged in critique by questioning,
challenging, and refining policies.
5.1.3 Comparison: Ethic of Care
In the India-based cohort, the ethic of care was evident in the leadership practices of
all five participants. This suggests a strong presence of care-oriented reasoning in ethical
decision making in the Indian cohort. On the other hand, in the Canada-based cohort, three
out of five Indian immigrant leaders demonstrated the ethic of care. This suggests a moderate
presence of care-oriented reasoning in ethical decision making in the Canada-based cohort.
India-based leaders emphasized relational responsibility, often engaging in flexible, contextsensitive decision-making that prioritized empathy. Their choices reflected an attentiveness to
the personal and cultural realities of those they led, particularly in environments where formal
structures offered limited guidance. For example, leaders in India modified institutional
policies to accommodate students’ transportation needs, adjusted reporting timelines to
support staff facing health challenges, and validated emotional concerns during workplace

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conflicts. These actions were ethical responses rooted in interdependency, compassion,
responsiveness, and empathy.
In contrast, Canadian-based Indian immigrant leaders demonstrated care-based
reasoning, which often involved ethical interpretation of existing protocols to make them
more humane and responsive. Rather than overhauling systems, these leaders introduced
targeted adjustments grounded in empathy and transparency. Examples include disclosing
restricted promotional offers to long-standing clients, mentoring interns with sensitivity to
their academic burdens, and adapting recognition and policy procedures based on individual
needs. Their actions showed care through compassion, open dialogue and putting others’
needs before their own.
5.1.4 Comparison: Ethic of Community
Leaders in both India and Canada demonstrated a strong commitment to the ethic of
community. In each cohort, four out of five leaders reflected this ethic, indicating a moderate
to strong preference. Leaders in India frequently described their decisions as being shaped by
a desire to maintain institutional cohesion and social harmony. For example, Kiran, an
executive engineer, stated that maintaining harmony within the team often takes precedence,
even over administrative correctness. Similarly, Hemant, a transport business owner, believed
that sustaining a business in a highly competitive environment requires building a strong
sense of community among all stakeholders and working for the common good rather than
individual interests. In a related example, Ravi and Ritu emphasized that most decisions in
their institutions are made collaboratively. Ritu, a school principal, managed a promotion
related conflict by inviting both parties into a transparent dialogue, ultimately reaching an
agreement that prioritized the needs of the community and the institution.
In the Indian cohort, leaders' interpretation of the ethic of community was shaped by
the social context and cultural practices of India. For example, Ritu emphasized that one

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reason she involves her superiors in decision making is rooted in the Indian cultural value of
respecting elders. Kiran echoed this view, stating, “Relations come first.” By "relations," he
was referring to communal values and shared responsibility. Hemant made a similar point,
explaining that in India, from employees to clients, it is essential to maintain relational
harmony for the overall health of the business. Another important aspect to consider is how
Indian leaders define community in their specific contexts. For both educational leaders, Ritu
and Ravi, the community included all staff members in their respective schools and industrial
training institutions, as well as students, parents, superiors, and the village or local
communities in which their institutions are located. Ravi explained that they regularly
collaborate with elected village officials to meet shared needs and maintain harmony. For
Kiran, an executive engineer, community primarily referred to his team members and the
industries they collaborate with. Hemant similarly described his community as including
everyone from drivers to administrative staff and clients.
Lastly, in terms of collaborative decision making, both Ritu and Ravi emphasized that
they make decisions collectively, incorporating the perspectives of all staff members. Ravi
added that students are also included when decisions relate to aspects of the teaching and
learning process. Kiran and Hemant agreed with the value of collaboration but drew a
distinction. When it comes to resolving ethical dilemmas, they noted that they usually make
decisions independently. They explained that this is due to the specialized nature of their
roles. Seeking help in resolving such dilemmas, they suggested, might be perceived as a sign
of weakness in leadership.
In contrast, Indian immigrant leaders based in Canada practiced the ethic of
community through communication, mutual respect, shared responsibility, collaborative
decision making, and a focus on the communal good. For example, Sachin prioritized the
overall benefit of the workplace community when making decisions regarding reward

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distribution. Leaders like Taha emphasized mutual respect, shared responsibility, and a
democratic decision-making process. He noted that while people might disagree with the
final decision, they still feel represented and are more likely to accept the outcome when they
are included in the process and take part in shared governance.
Abhi explained that, since working in Canada, he has shifted toward consulting
stakeholders, inviting feedback, and adapting decisions based on group input. He reflected
that while collaborative decision making is now expected in his practice, it would have been
more difficult to implement this level of collaboration if he were still in India. This view was
also supported by Rishi and Sachin. Rishi mentioned that in India, he felt pressured to act as a
strong, independent leader due to the high level of competition and the struggle for limited
resources. He noted that the Canadian context, in contrast, allowed him to embrace a more
community centred approach to leadership. When asked how they define community, Taha
explained that he considers all those associated with the masjid as part of his community. For
Rishi, Sachin, and Abhi, community primarily included their colleagues, team members, and
clients within their organizations.
Lastly, Siya, an assistant store manager who did not demonstrate a strong ethic of
community, shared a contrasting view. She observed,
I have noticed a lack of respect for people in leadership positions in Canada. In
Indian culture, people respect leaders and elders, and their decisions are accepted.
But in Canada, people expect me to consult everyone before making a decision.
Sometimes this delays the process, and I feel they do not trust me as a leader.
It is important to note that, compared to others in the Canadian cohort, Siya has only one year
of leadership experience in Canada. In contrast, the other participants have leadership
experience ranging from two to seven years.
5.1.5 Comparison: Ethic of Profession

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The ethic of profession was moderately prevalent in both the India-based and Canadabased participants, with three out of five leaders in each group demonstrating this ethical
paradigm. Among Indian professionals, this ethic was expressed strongly in technical,
industrial, and logistical contexts. Pavan, an operational excellence engineer, refused a
directive that compromised procedural integrity and explained his rationale with reference to
company policy and professional boundaries. Kiran, an executive engineer, emphasized
independent decision-making grounded in technical knowledge while maintaining
transparency with superiors. Hemant, a transport business owner, balanced operational
authority with relational fairness, consulting employees directly in ethically sensitive cases.
In the Canada-based cohort, the ethic of profession was similarly demonstrated
through professional autonomy, accountability, and boundary maintenance. Sachin, an IT
coordinator, emphasized independent technical judgment balanced with consultation when
appropriate. He also reflected on the cultural emphasis on work-life boundaries in Canada.
Abhi, an operations manager, described how his confidence in professional expertise shaped
ethical decision-making over time. Rishi, a team supervisor, adjusted a customer policy, but
he did so without compromising his professional duty to safeguard the interests of the
organization.
A key distinction between the cohorts lies in how professional autonomy was
exercised. In India, autonomy often had to be asserted in contexts where informal
expectations, hierarchical pressure, or outdated systems could threaten procedural integrity.
In Canada, professional autonomy was exercised within clearer structural parameters.
Leaders described themselves as empowered to make independent decisions but did so in
consultation with legal frameworks, policy documents, and hierarchical protocols. Their
autonomy was reinforced, rather than constrained, by the system.
5.1.6 Comparison: Ethic of Self-Care

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The Ethic of Self-Care was weakly represented in both the India-based and Canadabased cohorts, with only one leader in each group demonstrating this paradigm. Among
Indian professionals, this ethic emerged in the reflections of Ravi, a principal at a
government-run Industrial Training Institute. Ravi described his ethical challenges in
managing extensive government duties without institutional support or compensation. His
leadership practice underscored the importance of navigating structural constraints with
resilience while acknowledging the emotional toll of such responsibilities. Ravi committed to
question the systemic norms and he focuses on personal ethical growth.
In the Canada-based cohort, this ethic was exemplified by Taha, an administrator of a
religious institution. Taha shared how he accepted his leadership role out of communal need
rather than personal ambition. Over time, however, the emotional demands of leadership
began to disrupt his well-being. Recognizing the unsustainable nature of this emotional
labour, Taha made the ethically grounded decision to step away from formal governance
roles. His reflection emphasized that ethical leadership must include care for the leader’s
mental and emotional health.
In both cases, the leaders experienced the emotional and mental toll of ethical
leadership. However, the leader based in India responded by reflecting on his own ethical
beliefs and focusing on personal ethical growth, while the Canada-based Indian leader
responded by setting boundaries to protect his well-being.
5.2 Evidence of Multiple Ethical Paradigms and Application of Bird’s Eye View Model
Multiple ethical paradigms involve applying a range of ethical perspectives to
interpret and evaluate notions of ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ in leadership decisions (Hoare at el.,
2024). Instead of depending on just one ethical framework, leaders are encouraged to draw on
eight distinct lenses to develop a deeper and more detailed understanding of ethical
challenges. These lenses are considered equally important, as each offers unique advantages

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and drawbacks. By integrating multiple perspectives, leaders can address blind spots in their
viewpoint, leading to more thoughtful, reflective, culturally sensitive ethical leadership
(Hoare at el., 2024). Table 3 presents how leaders across both cohorts have utilized different
ethical paradigms to address various ethical dilemmas. Noteworthy was that nine out of ten
participants demonstrated the use of at least three distinct ethical lenses. In the Indian cohort,
the ethic of justice and the ethic of care were among the most common, demonstrated by four
out of five and all five leaders respectively. In the Canada-based cohort, both the ethic of
justice and the ethic of care were demonstrated by four out of five leaders, indicating strong
representation in both contexts.
Table 3
Bird’s Eye View Model: Demonstration of Leaders’ Use of Multiple Ethical Paradigms
Ethic of
Justice
Pavan
Ravi
Kiran
Ritu
Hemant
Taha
Sachin
Abhi
Siya
Rishi

Ethic of
Critique

Ethic of
Care

Ethic of
Community

Ethic of
Profession

Ethic of
Self-care

Ethic of
Discomfort

St’at’imc
matriarchal
leadership

The findings also highlight that several participants employed more than one ethical
lens to address a single dilemma. For example, Pavan, in responding to an ethical dilemma
involving false reporting, primarily used the ethic of justice to ensure procedural fairness.
However, he also viewed the issue through the lens of care, expressing that both the workers
and his subordinate were equally important to him. He emphasized the need to understand
both parties’ perspectives and to show compassion toward them. Utilizing multiple ethical
lenses in evaluating ethical dilemmas provides a deeper and more nuanced understanding of

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the situation (Hoare at el., 2024). In this case, relying solely on the ethic of justice might have
ensured fair treatment based on the universal application of policy, but it could have left the
workers feeling unheard and unrepresented. By incorporating the ethic of care alongside
justice, Pavan was able to refine the decision-making process to address the needs of all
parties involved while still upholding fairness and impartiality. He balanced fairness and
universal principles with empathy and care, adopting a more holistic approach to resolving
ethical dilemmas and demonstrating the use of multiple ethical paradigms (Hoare at el., 2024;
Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016).
Similarly, Rishi demonstrated a combination of the ethic of justice and the ethic of
care while addressing a case of repeated late arrivals. His solution ensured that the attendance
policy was applied equally to all, so no one received preferential treatment. At the same time,
he made an effort to understand the circumstances of the latecomer, ensuring the individual
did not feel ostracized and remained motivated to improve their punctuality. In another
example, Ritu applied both the ethic of care and the ethic of community when implementing
the Samaydaan initiative in her school. She explained that her primary ethical lens was care,
as she aimed to understand and prioritize students’ needs even above her own. This led her to
revise the school schedule to better align with students' daily lives. Additionally, she
acknowledged a secondary objective rooted in the ethic of community. She considered a
nearby tribal group as part of her broader school community and actively included their
perspectives in the decision-making process. By doing so, she demonstrated a commitment to
shared responsibility and the common good.
No evidence was found of the use of either the Ethic of Discomfort or St’at’imc
Matriarchal Leadership among participants in either cohort. St’at’imc Matriarchal Leadership
is a geographically and community-specific ethic, closely tied to the St’at’imc Nation. None
of the participants in this study identified as Indigenous from India, nor were any immigrant

160
participants working within that territory, which likely explains why this ethic did not appear
in their leadership practices. In contrast, the absence of the Ethic of Discomfort may be
attributed to its inherently challenging nature. This paradigm involves deliberately unsettling
or confronting followers to promote critical reflection, which can create discomfort or even
pain (Zemblyas, 2015). In cultural contexts where leadership emphasizes service and care for
others (Bodhananda, 2022), this confrontational approach may be especially difficult for
leaders to adopt, potentially explaining its absence in the findings.
5.3 Limitations and Directions for Future Research
This study offers meaningful insights into the ethical paradigms guiding Indian
professionals in both domestic and Canadian contexts. However, several limitations must be
acknowledged. First, two paradigms, the ethic of discomfort and St’at’imc matriarchal
leadership were not reflected in participants’ narratives. Future research could explore
whether this absence is due to contextual irrelevance, participant demographics, lack of
exposure, or the need for more thoughtfully designed interview questions that guide
participants to reflect on these frameworks. The perspectives of Indian tribal and Indigenous
groups have also not been widely explored, making this an important area for future research
(Turner, 2012).
Second, while this study focused on Indian professionals in Canada and India,
expanding the comparative framework to include professionals from other immigrant
communities or other regions of South Asia could reveal how acculturation shapes ethical
paradigms in culturally distinct ways. Including perspectives based on gender, caste, and
class would further strengthen the analysis, especially given that this study did not directly
address class-based variables. In this research, only one out of ten participants belonged to a
Scheduled Tribe. Future studies could include more participants from Scheduled Castes and

161
Scheduled Tribes to ensure that their perspectives, which have historically been overlooked,
are meaningfully represented, and explored (Singh, 2014).
Lastly, the sample size was relatively small, with only five participants in each cohort.
Additionally, gender diversity was limited, with only two women among the ten participants.
Given that Indian women's perspectives in ethical leadership are often underrepresented,
future research could improve both the sample size and gender balance to strengthen the
depth and inclusivity of the findings (Deshpande, 2022; Kaur, 2023; Mujawar, 2023). While
participants represented diverse professional backgrounds, age groups, and levels of work
experience, narrowing the focus of the research, for example, by examining only educational
leaders, could allow for more detailed comparisons across contexts and offer deeper insights
into how a specific sector understands ethical leadership.
By addressing these limitations, future research can contribute to a deeper
understanding of ethical leadership across cultural and institutional settings, enrich cross
cultural comparisons, and support a more comprehensive application of the multiple ethical
paradigm framework.

162
Conclusion
This research examined how Indian professionals understand and practice ethical
leadership within the cultural contexts of India and Canada. Using qualitative methods, the
study explored ethical leadership among Indian leaders through eight ethical paradigms:
justice, care, critique, community, profession, self-care, discomfort, and St’at’imc matriarchal
leadership ethics. It also analysed how acculturation to Canadian culture influences the
ethical leadership perspectives of Indian immigrant leaders. The study compared how these
paradigms are expressed and applied across two cultural settings. This research is distinct in
its comprehensive scope. Unlike prior studies that often adopt a fixed definition of ethical
leadership or examine only select paradigms, this study attempted to employ eight distinct
ethical frameworks to analyse leadership practices. It stands as one of the first studies to use
such a diverse set of paradigms in a cross-cultural context, thereby broadening the theoretical
and practical understanding of ethical leadership. The findings show that six paradigms
including justice, care, critique, community, profession, and self-care were present in both the
India based and Canada based groups. In contrast, no evidence of the ethic of discomfort or
St’at’imc matriarchal leadership was found among participants in either cohort, likely due to
cultural or contextual factors. However, their interpretations differed. In the Indian context,
justice and critique were often applied in response to unclear systems and limited institutional
oversight. In the Canadian context, professionals used justice and care to strengthen existing
procedures and promote fairness and equity. The ethic of community revealed important
cultural differences that shape leadership practices, especially in relation to collaborative
decision making.
In addition, this study speaks to dismantling the normative aspect of ethical
leadership by illustrating how ethical reasoning evolves with changing institutional and
cultural norms. It shows that ethical leadership is not only shaped by personal values but also

163
by the broader socio-cultural context in which it is practiced. The findings inform and extend
the Bird's Eye View model (Hoare et al., 2024) by showcasing how leaders across both India
based and Canada based cohorts interpret and implement multiple ethical paradigms. It
demonstrates that ethical dilemmas are frequently approached through more than one ethical
lens, emphasizing the complexity and contextual fluidity of moral decision making. Multiple
ethical paradigms allows for a deeper understanding of how ethical leadership is enacted in
practice, providing insights into the ways leaders integrate and navigate multiple ethical
perspectives. Ultimately, this research challenges singular, universal definitions of ethical
leadership and highlights the importance of culturally responsive, multi perspective
approaches in understanding and supporting ethical leadership across global contexts.

164
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Appendices
Appendix 1 Email to Participants
Subject: Invitation to Participate in Research Study on Ethical Leadership
Dear [Recipient's Name],
I hope this email finds you well. My name is Rumana Patel, and I am conducting a research
study as part of my thesis at Thompson Rivers University. The study is titled "Ethical
Leadership Paradigms among Indian Immigrant Professionals in Canada and Their
Counterparts in India: The Effects of Acculturation."I am writing to invite you to
participate in this study, which aims to explore the ethical leadership experiences of Indian
professionals in leadership roles, both in Canada and India. Your insights will be valuable in
helping us better understand how cultural contexts influence leadership practices and ethical
decision-making.
If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete the following:
1. Pre-Interview Worksheet: You will be provided with a short worksheet, which
includes a few questions about your background and your initial thoughts on
leadership ethics. This should take approximately 15-20 minutes.
2. Interview: You will then be invited to participate in a semi-structured interview for
about 45 minutes. During this interview, we will discuss your experiences and
perspectives on moral decision-making.
3. Member Check: After the interview, you will have an opportunity to review and
confirm the accuracy of the interview transcript, which should take about 15-20
minutes. Your name and any identifying details will not appear in my thesis or any
reports, presentations, publications, or exhibitions of the research unless you provide
explicit consent.
Attached to this email, you will find:
•
•

The recruitment letter, which provides more detailed information about the
inclusion and exclusion criteria and what participation involves.
The consent form, which outlines your rights as a participant, including
confidentiality and withdrawal options, study’s purpose, and process.

If you are interested in participating or have any questions, please reply to this email, and I
would be happy to provide more information.
Thank you for considering this opportunity to contribute to important research in the field of
ethical leadership.
Best regards,
Rumana Patel
Student of Master of Education
Thompson Rivers University
patelr224@mytru.ca

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Appendix 2 Pre-Interview Worksheet
Pre-Interview Worksheet: Background Information and Understanding Ethics

Please fill out the following information to help us understand your background and your
views on ethics in leadership.

Name of the Participant:
_______________________________________________________

1.

2.

Background Information (all study participants)
Which age range are you?
□ 25–29
□ 30–34
□ 35–40
□ 40–45
□ 45–50
What is your highest level of education?

3.

How many years of work experience do
you have in total?

4.

How long have you been working for the
current organization?

5.

How many years of experience do you
have in a leadership position?

6.

Briefly, what do you do in your current
job?
Additional Background Information (Indian Immigrants in Canada)

7.
8.
9.

What education did you receive in India India:
and Canada respectively?
Canada:
How many years have you been in
Canada?
How many years of work experience do
you have in Canada?
Ethical Understanding (Applicable to all participants)

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This study explores leadership ethics and moral dilemmas. ‘Ethics’ deals with what is
morally ‘right’ and ‘wrong.’ Perceptions of ethics vary and are influenced by one’s political
ideology, culture, religion, lived experiences, and other contextual factors. Yet leaders are
often confronted with the demand to provide a one-size-fits-all answer to complex problems.
Ethical dilemmas emerge when leaders are forced to choose among competing sets of
principles, values, beliefs, or ideas.
10.
In your opinion, how do you determine
what is right and wrong as a leader?

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Appendix 3: Interview Questionnaire
Project Title: Ethical Leadership Paradigms among Indian Immigrant Professionals in
Canada and Their Counterparts in India: The Effects of Acculturation.
Data Collection Method: Write and Talk Approach
To ensure a comprehensive understanding of participants' backgrounds and perspectives on
ethics in leadership, I will use a two-step data collection method referred to as the "Write and
Talk" approach. This method involves:
1. Pre-Interview Worksheet: Participants will complete a worksheet providing
background information and their initial thoughts on ethical leadership. This step
ensures participants are aware of the study’s focus and helps them articulate their
thoughts on ethics before the interview.
2. Interview Questions: Following the worksheet, participants will engage in a
semi-structured interview where they will discuss specific experiences and
perspectives related to ethical leadership. The interview questions are designed to
delve deeper into the ethical dilemmas and decision-making processes of the
participants.
The "Write and Talk" method helps in preparing participants for the interview, ensuring they
have thought about the topics beforehand, which can lead to more in-depth and thoughtful
responses during the interview.
Disclaimer:
This research involves interviewing professionals in leadership positions, a population
generally considered to have stability and resilience. However, since many participants are
(im)migrants, it is possible that reflecting on cultural adjustment, identity, and workplace
integration during the interview may evoke emotions or distress. We acknowledge these
factors to ensure that the research is conducted ethically and with care for your well-being.

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Potential Emotional Impact: While the study is considered minimal risk, we want to inform
you that discussing your personal or professional experiences may cause some discomfort. If
at any point during the interview you feel distressed, please let me know, and we will pause
the interview. You may choose to take a break or withdraw from the study at any time
without any negative consequences.
Support Measures:
1. Informed Consent: You will be fully informed about the nature of the study,
including any potential discomfort. You can choose to opt out at any time, without
penalty.
2. Immediate Support: If you feel upset or distressed during the interview, the
session can be paused, and you will be asked if you’d like to continue or
withdraw. Support services will also be offered immediately.
3. Access to Support Services: If needed, you can access support services
during or after the study. Below is a list of resources available to you:
Support Services Available:
•

•

Wellness Together Canada: Free, confidential mental health counselling.
o

Website: https://wellnesstogether.ca

o

Phone: 1-800-668-6868

Immigrant Services Society of British Columbia (ISSofBC): Counselling

and settlement services for immigrants.

•

o

Website: https://issbc.org/

o

Email: info@issbc.org

o

Phone: (604) 684-2561

Multicultural Health Brokers: Provides counselling and mental health

resources for immigrants and refugees.

188
o

Website: http://mchb.org/

o

Email: mchb@mchb.org

o

Phone: 780-423-1973

Your well-being is important to us, and we want to ensure that you have access to the
necessary resources in case any distress arises during the study.
Interview Questions: Ethical Leadership and Moral Dilemmas

1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Indians Holding Leadership Positions in Indian Immigrants Holding Leadership
India
Positions in Canada
Could you please share your name and Could you please share your name and your
your preferred pronouns?
preferred pronouns?
Describe an ethical dilemma that you
Describe an ethical dilemma that you have
have experienced as a leader. What did experienced as a leader. What did you do in
you do in that situation?
that situation?
Were you ever in a situation where you Were you ever in a situation where you felt
felt like no matter what decision you
like no matter what decision you made it
made it would be unfair to some people would be unfair to some people involved? If
involved? If so, describe what you did in so, describe what you did in that situation.
that situation.
Have you ever relaxed a policy or bent Have you ever relaxed a policy or bent the
the rules as a leader to uphold your
rules as a leader to uphold your principles?
principles? If so, describe what you did If so, describe what you did in that
in that situation.
situation.
Do you discuss how to resolve ethical Do you discuss how to resolve ethical
dilemmas with other people in your
dilemmas with other people in your
organization? If so, who? Describe a
organization? If so, who? Describe a
situation.
situation.
Having worked in India, how do you
Having been working in Canada for at least
think your culture influences your
5 years now, do you think your idea of
decision-making processes as a leader? ethical leadership has changed? If so, how?
Give an example.
Possible probes:
• Does ethical leadership mean
the same thing to you when you
are working in Canada relative to
when you worked in India? If
not, what are some differences?
• Can you think of decisionmaking processes that are
effective in India, but not in
Canada? Vice versa?

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Appendix 4: Ethics Approval
6/30/25, 8:44 AM

Email

From
tlawrie@tru.ca
To Patel, Rumana(Primary Investigator) < patelr224@mytru.ca >
Subject
REB Approval (COA)
Attachments

September 23, 2024
Ms. Rumana Patel
Faculty of Education and
Social Work\Education
Thompson Rivers University
File Number: 104088
Approval Date: September 23, 2024
Expiry Date: September 22, 2025
Dear Ms. Rumana Patel,
The Research Ethics Board has approved your application titled 'Ethical Leadership Paradigms among Indian
Immigrant Professionals in Canada and Their Counterparts in India: The Effects of Acculturation'. You may
begin the proposed research as it is written in this form. REB approval, dated September 23, 2024, is valid for
one year: September 22, 2025.
To continue your proposed research beyond September 22, 2025, please submit Renewal Form before
September 22, 2025. If your research ends before September 22, 2025, please submit a Final Report Form to
close out REB approval monitoring efforts. Here is how:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Log into your ROMEO account
Locate the study (there is a search bar near the top of your homepage that may be helpful)
Click on the events button to the left of side of the page
Choose the appropriate form for what you want to do (renew, finalize)
Answer the few questions and click submit

Any and all changes to the approved protocol must be reviewed and approved by the REB. If you want to add
or change your research protocol then submit an amendment using the same above instructions. The Tri-Council
would consider it non-compliant to implement a new or different protocol without REB review.
If you have an award that is contingent upon REB approval, then please present this letter as evidence of
certification for this research.
If you have any questions about the REB process or ROMEO then please call (250) 852-7122 or email TRUREB@tru.ca.
Sincerely,
Dr. Jennifer Shaw
Acting Chair, Research Ethics Board