LAND, PEOPLE, AND PLACE: ETHNOBOTANY IN SECWEPEMCÚL’ECW By MELISSA AIRD A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standards: _________________________________________ Lisa Cooke (Ph.D.), Thesis Supervisor, Dept. Anthropology _________________________________________ Jenna Woodrow (Ph.D.), Dept. Philosophy __________________________________________ Lyn Baldwin (Ph.D.), Dept. Biological Sciences __________________________________________ Mark Rowell Wallin (Ph.D.), Co-ordinator, Interdisciplinary Studies Dated this 20th day of April, 2017, in Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada ABSTRACT This project arose as a personal response to the overwhelming over-representation of Indigenous peoples in statistics on health crises. We hear so often about how Indigenous peoples are less healthy and more subject to health inequalities than our non-Indigenous neighbors. As a result, I began research on ethnobotany and the idea of traditional medicine restoration being part of a solution. In this paper I argue for a healthcare system that will validate Indigenous healing as equally authoritative to Western approaches to health and wellbeing, rather than dismissive of them. Ethnobotany mediates the relationship with land, souls and self while colonialism obscures the importance and relevance of Indigenous consciousness. Health issues faced by many Indigenous peoples are a direct reflection of the lasting impacts of colonialism, assimilation policy, ethnocide and genocide. Solving these health problems rooted in this horrible past and the intergenerational traumas left in their wake, requires not just acknowledging truth and reconciling differences, but a social transformation whereby dominant settler colonial society validates indigeneity and First Nations ways of being and knowing as equal epistemological systems. “For the First Peoples of Canada, the past cannot be forgotten, deliberately overlooked, or discarded as no longer relevant. The past is still present, but in a different form that must be addressed again in the new conditions in which it appears, now and into the future” (Task Force on Aboriginal Languages and Cultures, 2005, p. 24). Thus I view this thesis as an act of resistance against colonial knowledge forms. It looks to create space for, and validate, Indigenous epistemologies. The acknowledgment of different ways of being and knowing as equals to colonial knowing will forever change the way Canadian Indigenous peoples are understood, respected and will lead to healing of the intergenerational trauma imposed on our ii | A i r d Indigenous peoples. The breaking of hegemony and racist discourse that engulfs society today starts with every individual person in society taking a stand and being able to acknowledge and see these almost undetectable systems that still today assimilate and marginalize First Nations. This research project is the embodiment of a journey to acceptance and healing through personal discovery and the justification that we live in a world that needs to adopt diversity as second nature. iii | A i r d ACKOWLEDGEMENTS The Creator: Thank you for blessing me with the opportunity to see the world we live in through the lens of truth, giving me to tools and strength to impact the world I live in and granting me the ability to inspire others through my knowledge. The Elders: Thank you for your knowledge, strength and stories. Your wisdom and beautiful souls inspire me daily. My family: Thank you for your love and constant support, your knowledge and traditional values are what made me the person I am today. Dr. Lisa Cooke: Thank you for your guidance, support and mentorship through my undergraduate degree. You inspire me daily with your strength, knowledge and passion. Tk’emlúps te Secwe̓ pemc: Thank you for sharing your home and traditional land with me so I may study and live here. Thompson Rivers University: Thank you for being open and accepting to my unique Indigenous epistemologies. iv | A i r d TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... ii ACKOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................. iv LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... vi INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 COLONIALISM ............................................................................................................................ 2 MY INDIGENOUS EPISTIMOLOGY .......................................................................................... 8 PLACE ......................................................................................................................................... 11 CULTURAL RESTORATION .................................................................................................... 16 INDIGENOUS LAND AND PLANT CONNECTIONS ............................................................. 19 TRADITIONAL MEDICINE USES FOR TODAY .................................................................... 25 ETHNOBOTANY OF SECWEPEMCÚL’ECW ......................................................................... 27 HOW ETHNOBOTANY CURES................................................................................................ 29 TRADITIONAL PLANT NAMES AND USES .......................................................................... 32 HOLISTIC HEALING VS BIOMEDICAL CURES ................................................................... 38 WHY NOW .................................................................................................................................. 44 CONCLUSION AND LOOKING FORWARD ........................................................................... 46 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 53 APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 57 APPENDIX A (TABLE 5 THOMPSON PLANT MEDICINES ENCOUNTERED) NANCY TURNER RESEARCH TABLES 1990 ....................................................................................... 57 v|Aird LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 11 Figure 2 Number of Plant Species Used To Treat Different Illnesses (Turner 43) ...................... 28 Figure 3 (Turner 60)...................................................................................................................... 33 Figure 4 (Turner 61)...................................................................................................................... 34 Figure 5 (Turner 63)...................................................................................................................... 35 vi | A i r d INTRODUCTION “I am homesick for a place I am not sure even exists–One where my heart is full, my body loved, and my soul understood.” – Anonymous I approach this study with the utmost pride to be able to find a piece of myself and my people’s way of being and knowing. As many off reservation Indigenous peoples feel, I experience a sense of cultural loss; a disconnection from traditional ways. In the summer of 2016, I was approached by my family’s traditional healer and elder. She began weeping deeply because she had suffered a stroke earlier that summer while driving, leading to her car going into a ditch that went undiscovered for over twelve hours. It was here that Doris told me she died. While in transition to her passing, her life passed before her eyes and she realized a disheartening truth: that she was the last traditional healer in my family. She asked to Creator for the opportunity to come back to our family with the intent of ensuring tradition would not be lost forever. Her wish was granted and she returned to us, but for a time she knew was not long. She cried in our talk not just because of her pain and hardship but because she knew this would be the last time we would ever see each other. She took the opportunity to speak to me about the importance of passing traditional ways on to future generations and offered advice on the basics of our ways of being. Doris has always protected my family through traditional spirituality and will until the day she dies. Whether it be Sun Dancing, smudging or praying for us she has always been there. It is now my turn to learn and pass traditional ways on so that Doris’s last dying wish is both respected and fulfilled. The strength of our family and our health comes from our traditional Indigenous ties and we need to protect this sacred and essential part of our existence. This study is the root of discovery where I incorporate all of my education thus far and 1|Aird incorporate it into a larger and more important whole, one where I learn the most important educational tools for success which are the tools of self-discovery, pride and the revelation of my soul. In having internal strength and pride in the person I am and embodying the Indigenous spirituality that runs deep in my existence, I have the ability to conquer anything. COLONIALISM The cause for loss of traditional medicine and healing is colonialism. Within Canadian First Nations, Metis and Inuit, colonialism decimated traditional medicine and healing through ethnocide, genocide and dislocation. Genocide and ethnocide brought intergenerational oral tradition loss, shame and cultural confusion to First Nations. Another large factor that has negatively influenced traditional medicine and healing is the loss of language through assimilation policy. Indigenous peoples pass knowledge through oral tradition passed down from generation to generation. The creation of the residential school system and the forcible removal of children from their families resulted in broken oral tradition and broken land connections. With the loss of language, oral traditions and traditional ethnobotany could not be passed to future generations. Dislocation is an interesting cause of loss of traditional ethnobotany because it involves several factors. The direct removal from a specific land led to the loss of specific culturally relevant plant species because they are only located in specific locations and ecological zones. Dislocation also has led to a loss of traditional medicine because of the land First Nations were moved to during the creation of the reservation system was often unfavourable land with few resources. Indigenous peoples harvested, hunted and survived through traditional ways passed down from generation to generation, so when tradition was broken so was their ability to survive as they used to. 2|Aird Dislocation also leads to First Nations bordering on now urbanized settler communities. For example in Kamloops the Tk’emlúps te Secwe̓ pemc reservation has now been infiltrated by the Sun Rivers development which is a large high end housing development and golf course. With the urbanization and housing developments on reservations, First Nations land areas to practice traditional medicine are even further reduced. Also because of the spiritual cleansing and traditional ways of gathering traditional medicines, it becomes impossible to do so in a culturally respectful way in high population areas. Another factor on traditional healing was the introduction of invasive species by colonial settlers. These invasive species outcompeted many culturally and medically significant plants to First Peoples and left them with plants that could not be used in their traditional ways. Today one of the large factors that hinder traditional medicines ability to thrive is the colonial belief that traditional medicine is inferior to modern scientific medicine. Settler societies often believe that, “unlike aboriginal traditions, the scientific process enables us to separate out substances that work from those that are merely placebos. In this way, we have largely rid ourselves of various quack medicines, many of which are undoubtedly still being flogged today by various ‘traditional healers’” (Widdowson, 2008, p.188). There is also the belief that traditional medicine, “can lead to legitimate (i.e., Biomedical) cures being neglected” (Widdowson, 2008, p.179). This is an extremely flawed argument. Although scientific method and testing can prove how modern medicine is effective, traditional medicine has been practiced and proven effective since the beginning of Indigenous peoples and human existence. This is an example of settler society failing to acknowledge any other ways of knowing and being as valid. In doing this settler society ignores and disregards a form of healing that could help all people not only just in Canada but worldwide. 3|Aird The racist discourse that undermines medicine practiced for thousands of years because it did not use a scientific method of discovery in a time the scientific method did not exist is rather paradoxical. When looking to the scientific method it becomes important to view Paul Feyerabend’s Against Method which points to the idea that scientific method is just as vulnerable to scrutiny as Indigenous systems of knowing. He states, Science is much closer to myth than a scientific philosophy is prepared to admit. It is one of the many forms of thought that have been developed by man, and not necessarily the best. It is conspicuous, noisy, and impudent, but it is inherently superior only for those who have already decided in favour of a certain ideology, or who have accepted it without ever having examined its advantages and its limits (Preston, 2016). The questioning of the scientific method that Freyerbend offers, allows for the reality that methodologies and human understanding stem from sovereignty that has previously decided what is acceptable doctrine and discourse. His anarchist views of science and the powers it holds over society are particularly relevant for this study because it offers insight to the idea that all reasoning and logic has flaws. Just as settler society looks to see and point out Indigenous flaws the same can be done to their systems of knowing. In theory then much of believed systems of right and wrong are just a further projection of racist and authoritative discourse. Paul Feyerabend did not teach that 'anything goes' in science but he did reject that certain single-minded arrogance in which certain leading scientists insist that latest theories were/are beyond any outside challenge. He insisted - and surely we should all agree - that science has no merits above culture, religion or the arts and that it is folly to place it upon a grandiose pedestal of elitism. In this, Paul Feyerabend was surely correct (Brace, 2011). 4|Aird Although Freyerabend discusses a controversial topic, he also points to something important which is the idea that scientific method is not above any other methodology. He looks to liberation of the human race through critical engagement of all systems of knowing that allows for equality and prevails that all these methodologies for understanding are relevant in their own context. Science is not the only answer for truth and understanding in the dynamic world we live in, but rather a piece of the puzzle to understanding and knowing. Modern medicine has its uses as does traditional medicine, but to completely disregard traditional healing is to reject something that settler society has limited knowledge about. The view of traditional healing through scientific viewpoints and a reductive lens is one of the most common ways Indigenous medicinal practices are discredited today. It’s a fear of the unknown that often leads to a societal backlash and disregard for different ways of knowing. Traditional healing has been around for so long because it has worked to heal hundreds of generations of First Nations. The discussion of different ways of healing should not be one of right and wrong but rather one of acceptance of diversity in different humans biological and spiritual healing needs. Human’s variability and response to certain medical interventions is a huge range that cannot be explained just through modern medicine. “Patients vary widely in their responses to drugs. This variability is seen, not only in beneficial responses, but also in adverse drug reactions, an increasingly recognized problem that extracts a huge toll in lives and in healthcare costs” (Roden, 2002). The blatant and racist disregard for Indigenous healing practices is another form of assimilation and genocide. Disregarding traditional healing of complex Indigenous health issues leaves First Nations unhealthy; this is one of the many factors that affect the high rate of Indigenous health problems today. If modern medicine was so effective in healing all 5|Aird health ailments then why are Indigenous communities suffering from the worst health epidemic ever seen? Upon colonialism the introduction of health epidemics and Western disease were brought into Indigenous communities. The epidemic of smallpox was intentionally introduced to Indigenous communities and wiped out vast numbers of Indigenous peoples. Displacement from traditional food and diet has led today to rampant diabetes, obesity issues and it is arguable that all the health problems Indigenous peoples suffer from are related to the disconnect from traditional diet. Traditional medicine was ingested daily through traditional sustenance which allowed for these people to maintain good health and illness prevention. The food upon which Indigenous people around the world depended for life was also their medicine. The two were so intimately intertwined that many foods, under proper supervision and application, were components of a medical system based on natural properties of plants and animals. Food combined with physical lifestyle and spiritual orientation, formed an interactive triad that was the cornerstone of health (Cajete, 2000, p.115). The decline of Indigenous health is a direct reflection of a system that fails to acknowledge their ways of being and compressively address issues surrounding them. Perhaps if traditional medicine was restored we would not see the following statistics. Nearly one quarter of First Nations adults reported contemplating suicide at some point in their life, according to a 2008-10 survey by the First Nations Information Governance Centre. These figures stand in contrast to the just 9.1 per cent of adults from the general Canadian population who had similar thoughts. According to a 2000 report from the Canadian Institute of Health, suicides among First Nations youth (aged 15 to 24) was about 6|Aird five to six times higher than non-aboriginal youth in Canada. First Nations people are also more likely to report moderate or high levels of psychological distress, according the First Nations Regional Health Survey from 2008 to 20010. In their findings, 33.5 per cent of the general population reported these issues, in comparison to 50.7 per cent of First Nations adults. (Shulman, 2016) These mental health issues are a direct response to a system of repression under which First Nations live. Those of privilege have a hard time understanding why Indigenous health is so poor, but a huge cause of this is a medical system that is often inaccessible and does not address their unique health appropriately. This is without doubt the most shameful fact of Canada’s history. It continues to inflict its damage on more than a million people in Canada. No other group in Canada lives with the poverty, illness, social and cultural burdens that we impose on our indigenous peoples: third-world standards of housing, water supply, social supports and healthcare; more illness of all sorts (diabetes, heart disease, tuberculosis, to name but a few), higher suicide rates, more children in foster care, lower levels of education and employment … when will it be addressed and when will it end? (Wittenberg, 2015). The need for implementing a health care system that looks to understand and appropriately heal Indigenous peoples is at an all-time high. With the traditional methodology for healing of spirit illness in particular, high levels of mental health issues could be addressed. The sense of culture, connections, selfhood and pride that comes from traditional healing could flip this health epidemic around. In restoration of traditional values and pride the mental health of First Nations would only improve and the traditional healing methods involving community and support will only help these people find strength in themselves like they had before colonialism. 7|Aird MY INDIGENOUS EPISTIMOLOGY Native plant harvesting often involves a wide array of cultural and traditional practices, and typically, is specific to the individual, family and often the First Nation. The intrinsic beliefs, culture and practice as passed down from generation to generation form the base for many medicinal and spiritual plant uses. For one family of Saulteau First Nations healers, gathering medicinal and ceremonial plants requires a number of cultural components that are intrinsic to the final use and efficiency of the plant. Gathering plants requires cultural knowledge usually passed down from the elders from an early age, but, the knowledge can also be passed down through the dream-world to a rare few First Nations from specific blood-lines that tie back beyond the period of western world influences. Some First Nations are often only gifted with the cultural knowledge and skills to harvest plants, while many healers possess rare and unique gifts to not only gather and harvest in the proper cultural manner, but to use the harvested plants for healing and ceremonial purposes. These latter individuals are often referred to as traditional healers, medicine people and/or spiritual healer. In conversations with Doris and my grandmother (both Saulteau First Nations’ elders) over my lifetime the following oral traditions were shared. Prior to harvesting, a person must cleanse the body and mind for a minimum of four days, including the removal of western world dietary products. The eyes are cleansed so the gatherer can see the truth, the beauty of Mother Earth, the gifts from the Creator, the love shared with us through family, friends and community. The mouth is cleansed so the gatherer will only speak the truth in a way that empowers the positive energies, so only good things full of praise and thanksgiving for our Creator are spoken. The ears are cleansed to help hear the spiritual truths given by the Creator, the grandfathers, the four directions and help us to be open to hear requests from others, ensuring we only hear good 8|Aird and allow bad to bounce off. The heart cleanse is to ensure we only feel the truth and grow with harmony and balance in a good, pure way and open to show compassion, gentleness and caring for others. The feet are cleansed to helps us see our true path of balance and harmony in this world and the next and lead us closer to families, community and loved ones while helping us flee our enemies and lead us closer to our Creator. The process of cleansing the body and spirit prior to picking is essential as the traditional gathering and subsequently using plants to heal, starts with a pure form (body and soul) of gathering and paying respect to Four Directions, Four Colors and the grandfather. At the onset of harvesting, the gatherer will offer natural tobacco products to the grandfathers and the Four Directions prior to initiating the gathering process to ask for their forgiveness in taking the plants life and will also ask for the plant spirit to help in the healing or ceremony of planned use. Most First Nations’ harvesters believe in the Four Directions and Four Colors, and these elements are honored when harvesting plants for cultural purposes such as medicinal and spiritual use. Gathering plants for healing and ceremonies also involves asking for ancestor’s (grandfather spirits) for help. In this way the grandfathers cross the plane to the individual in need of healing both medicinal and spiritual, and the plant or combination of plants is not only a cultural offering but also a traditional medicine to aid in the heal process. Single plants or a multiple combination are used in healing, and traditional healers are gifted with the knowledge from the ancestors on how to gather and how to prepare and administer the plant(s) to heal. Only traditional healers know how to conduct these ceremonies and typically are paid with tobacco, gifts such as wild meat, hides and clothing. Today many healers accept money as this is the current trade item of convenience and ease. People without the traditional knowledge from the ancestors should not gather plants to heal as the gathering process is fundamental to the healing. 9|Aird The Four Colors and what they culturally represent is also important to understand when becoming a gatherer or healer. Yellow represents the direction east which symbolizes a new beginning of day, the coming of father sun and teaches understanding and wisdom to live a good life. Red represents the direction south where the sun at its highest to provide warmth and help all living things grow. All life comes from sun. The wind spirit comes from the south as does the spirit world path from beyond the Milky Way returning us to where we came from. Black represent the direction west which signifies the end of the day and can also represent the end of life. The Great Thunderbird spirit lives here and sends rain, so west is source of water essential to all life. White represents the north and signifies cold, winter and cleansing winds to help Mother Earth to rest and revitalize. White teaches us to face the winds like the Buffalo and Elk to understand patience, endurance, direction of hardship, discomfort and represents the trails one must ensure they follow along with the cleansing of the soul. The four original plants used in traditional medicines and spiritual ceremonies are sage, sweet grass, tobacco and cedar. Many variations of sage can be found. Medicine sage is very rare and can be found in only a few locations in BC. Sage provides strength, wisdom and clarity and helps with life giving powers for women. Sweet grass is often found on the grassland plains of Alberta and eastward and into the central USA. Sweet grass is used in ritual cleansing of the soul and body and takes prayers to the creator and grandfathers in the spirit world. Sweet grass symbolizes and teaches us kindness as it bends in the wind and storms, but does not break when injustice is done to it. Tobacco is a sacred plant and opens door between worlds of earth and spirits. Tobacco is rare in BC and can be found in the Princeton valley area. Tobacco is often offered in healing and ceremonies and is a sacred promise with between people, the Creator, and grandfathers of the spirit world and offering and prayers must be honored. Tobacco is used in 10 | A i r d thanking creator for all things. Cedar is found readily throughout south and central BC and is used for body and soul purification. Cedar attracts positive energy, feelings and emotion and is used in healing and spiritual ceremonies and helps to balance worlds. Figure 1 PLACE My research project is on ethnobotany in Secwepemcúl’ecw. My research has shown me an area in health and healing that has been depreciated and disregarded in its importance. This is the idea of traditional medicine restoration being a solution to the current Indigenous health epidemic and the concept of what I refer to as “culture collaboration in medicine”. This project compares the disciplinary insights obtained from Indigenous traditional medicine and ethnobotany with those of scientific medicine. It is here that a place was found where these two different ways of knowing can come together to potentially revolutionize health care today. If Indigenous epistemologies are understood, I believe they can then be used in conjunction with 11 | A i r d modern medicine. Once incorporated, a health care system can be devised that best heals Indigenous patients and their distinctive health issues. Given the main topic of this paper is ethnobotany of Secwepemcúl’ecw, it is important to begin with the acknowledgement and understanding of the larger Thompson Region and its traditional territories, of which the Secwepemc Nation is part. The colonial named “Thompson region” is extremely ecologically and culturally diverse. In the past the people of this region were known as the Plateau people and today many of them fall on unceded land that makes their Indigenous experience very different than other Canadian First Nations. “British Columbia is home to 198 First Nations, about one third of all First Nations in Canada. The First Nations of BC have rich and varied cultures, histories and traditions. BC has the greatest diversity of Aboriginal cultures in Canada. For example, seven of Canada's 11 unique language families are located exclusively in BC - more than 60% of the country's First Nations languages” (Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, 2010). With this diversity of British Columbia’s Indigenous peoples it is important to specify exactly which regions will be discussed in this paper. Today the Plateau peoples are divided into, “eight main Plateau groups: the Tsilhqot'in (formerly the Chilcotin), the Carrier, the Nicola, Secwepemc (formerly the Shuswap), the Stl'atl'imx (formerly the Lillooet), the Okanagan, the Nlaka'pamux (formerly the Thompson), and the Ktunaxa (formerly the Kutenai or Kootenay)” (Canada’s First Peoples, 2007). These large subgroups can then be further divided into more distinct and unique Nations or reservations. For example, in the Secwepemc Nation there are over nineteen present day reserves that are self-distinguished groups with differing ways of being and tradition. For this particular study the focus will be on exploring the importance of ethnobotany of Secwepemcúl’ecw as a conduit to re-establish links between land and people that 12 | A i r d history and politics disrupted. The Secwepemc peoples are the first inhabitants of the south central interior of British Columbia. “The territory of the Secwepemc extends from the Columbia River Valley on the east slope of the Rocky Mountains to the Fraser River on the west and from the upper Fraser River in the north to the Arrow Lakes in the south. Secwepemc territory covers a vast area; approximately 180,000 square km” (Secwepemc Nation, 2017). Given the nature of the diversity of this region there is a need to comprehensively engage with tradition and culture from all the peoples of the Secwepmec Nation to engage in a study that is decolonized and not from a hegemonic discourse. An important aspect of understanding and decolonizing the current conceptualizations about the peoples of Secwepemcúl’ecw is to first understand the past of their peoples. In the past these people lived a semi-nomadic existence that followed seasonally available plants and game. They embodied traditional subsistence from the land they lived on, paying respects to the souls of all living things that allowed their survival through tradition and rituals. The Thompson River gave these people one of their main food sources which was the salmon and fish while the diverse environment and plant resources offered traditional medicine, clothing, shelter, spiritual importance and food. Many features of both material and social culture were shared by the Thompson with other Plateau peoples. Subsistence was- and still is in many cases- based on heavy use of anadromous fish (subject to their availability in the given locality), on the hunting of game, both large and small, and on the harvesting of a wide variety of wild fruits and root vegetable. Clothing was of hide, fur and wild plant materials. Permanent dwellings, usually occupied by two or more families, were circular, semi subterranean pit houses. Both 13 | A i r d twined and coiled baskets were used, as well as containers of bark, especially of birch (Turner, 1990, p.11). These First Nations were a self-sustaining people that still today thrive on their rich cultural and spiritual connections to the land. The intergenerational knowledge, traditions of the land and their ways of being led them to be very spiritually strong and connected peoples. “Indigenous knowledge is…inherently tied to land, not to land in general but to particular landscapes, landforms, and biomes where ceremonies are properly held, stories properly recited, medicines properly gathered , and transfers of knowledge properly authenticated” (Bastien, p.132). Importantly our local First Nations understood interrelations and connections to all things, practiced sustainable resource management and carried a worldview that connected them to land and place. However, the traditional ways of Indigenous peoples changed drastically upon the arrival of European settlers in British Columbia. Unknown at the time of settler arrival was the assimilation policies, ethnocide, and genocide First Peoples were about to face. The inherent beliefs that First Nations were lesser, “savage” peoples allowed settler population began systemically and intentionally destroying Indigenous peoples. “The dominant explanation for the continuation of poor aboriginal health in the wake of increased spending is, once again, colonialism. Aboriginal people, the argument goes, were healthy before European contact. This degree of wellness deteriorated as European intervention in Aboriginal affairs increased” (Widdowson, 2008, p.176). After suffering generations of intentional devastation and complete carnage on their Indigenous ways of being, it is no surprise that Indigenous peoples now suffer from intergenerational trauma, continuous assimilation through ethnocide, dislocation, racist policy and marginalization. 14 | A i r d The subsumption of diverse Native cultures under one externally created term “Indian,” to be administered under the Indian Act, became a form of cultural genocide designed to fasttrack the federal government’s agenda of assimilation of Aboriginal people to the white mainstream during the colonial period. The major challenge of the Canadian government now is one of how to “decolonize.” (Elsey, 2013, p.7) This study looks to ways to solve what could be called “spirit illness” through traditional medicine and cultural restoration. First Nations had their entire ways of being forcibly abolished, their souls and spirituality ripped from their bodies, families vigorously dismantled, shame brought to their entire existence and an intentional dislocation from traditional land which is a piece of their soul. Indigenous health problems today are a direct reflection of colonialism, assimilation policy, ethnocide and genocide and to solve these health problems caused from this horrible past and intergenerational trauma, the solution is not just acknowledging truth and reconciling, but to live in a society that validates indigeneity and First Nations ways of being and knowing as equal epistemological systems. The acknowledgment of different ways of being and knowing as a equal to colonial knowing will forever change the way Canadian First Nations are understood, respected and will lead to healing of the intergenerational trauma imposed on our Indigenous peoples. The breaking of hegemony and racist discourse that engulfs society today starts with every individual person in society taking a stand and being able to acknowledge and see these almost undetectable systems that still today assimilate and marginalize First Nations. “I am talking about the deaths of my people. I am talking about not only the deaths by accident, suicide and violence but also the death of the soul which lies behind the environment of selfdestruction and despair in which Indian people exist as much today as a decade ago “(Campbell, 1980, p.18). 15 | A i r d CULTURAL RESTORATION One of the most obvious solutions to alleviate Indigenous health issues is the cultural restoration of traditional practices. However colonialism, ethnocide and genocide has diminished traditional practices, and increased intergenerational disconnect, resulting in a spiritually suffering peoples today who struggles in a modern world to find their belonging. Wolfgang refers to this modern day health issue as “spiritual illness,” and argues that it is something that plagues Indigenous peoples today. “Anomic depression is a chronic dysphoric state characterized by feelings of existential frustration, discouragement, defeat, lowered self-esteem and sometimes moral disorientation. This state is often the basis of the specific psychic and psychological symptom-formation manifested by contemporary sufferers from spirit illness” (Wolfgang, 1992, p.52). Wolfgang argues that this “spiritual illness” negatively influences Indigenous health in all aspects including mental and physical and follows a pattern of rejection and loss of self. Most of the case histories obtained on severe spirit illness revealed the following pattern, which may be called the psychodynamics of anomic depression: a) acculturation imposed through western education; b) attempt at White identification, or vying for acceptance by Whites; c) subjective experience of rejection and discrimination-awareness of relative deprivation in White society; d) cultural identity confusion; e) moral disorientation, often with acting-out behavior; f) guilt about denial of Indian-ness- depressive and psychophysiological symptom formation- inefficiency of Western remedies”(Wolfgang, 1992, p.55). Wolfgang points to two important issues in his ideas of Indigenous health problems today which are: 1) many First Nations today are stuck between two differing ways of being and 2) Western medicine fails to acknowledge and heal effectively the unique Indigenous health issues. 16 | A i r d Traditionally the Secwepemc Nation and all Plateau peoples lived a very active life based on a very holistic and natural diet. Physical activity, navigating the land, collecting and hunting were everyday means of survival. Today the loss of traditional ways within First Peoples communities, especially with off reserve Aboriginals means that traditional healing needs to be restored. In society today the options for living a traditional life are also limited by the reserve system and Canadian jurisprudence. If First Nations are unable to live traditionally in the manner that leads to the better health of their peoples then they are forced to try to fit into settler modernity. This causes a general feeling of rejection and a self-awareness of the discrimination they face in this society and leaves Indigenous peoples in a culturally confused place not fitting in anywhere. Wolfgang argues that the marginalization, high incarceration and crime rates, physical and mental health issues, socioeconomic poverty, substance abuse and furthering of intergenerational trauma are a consequence of cultural confusion and dislocation. More important appears the issue of assimilation. Quite apart from its feasibility,-the dominant society of North America has so far proven incapable of truly assimilating any of the substantial non-Caucasian minority groups, rather they tend to be tucked away in urban slums under conditions of economic exploitation and racial discrimination, - the question arises, whether assimilation is a desirable goal even for the individual Indian. Judging from historical experiences we shall have to concede that attempts at assimilation of Indian populations have resulted in deculturation rather than acculturation. Attempts at luring Indian people away from their cultural identity by the offer of economic baits and under the pretext of a phony egalitarianism, have led to the deleterious psychosocial consequences of anomie (Wolfgang, 1992, p.107). 17 | A i r d Canadian assimilation led not just to the denial of basic human rights and genocide but left those who survived unable to pass forward important traditional moral values and teachings. The legacy of assimilation, as well as the silent power of hegemony and discourse has created an extreme social instability as the traditional morals and values of First Nations has been forcibly removed from them. “Aboriginal people are in an identity crisis situation; however, they are beginning to have a clear vision of their ‘own’ heritage and culture, as distinguished from that of ‘mainstream’ society” (Frideres, 2005, p.16). Indigenous ways of being and knowing still live today through oral tradition told by elders; however this oral tradition is often rejected or considered invalid by most of settler society. Indigenous peoples today though are fighting for the restoration of traditional ways and culture and are doing this through trying to find strength within their peoples. The issue that gets in the way of traditional restoration and First Nations solving their spiritual illness is that many of their peoples are struggling to find strength in the pain that they have suffered. With the last residential school closing less than twenty years ago, ongoing denial of basic human rights on reservations such as drinking water and safe housing and with future generations still being removed from their families through the foster care system, it is no wonder that the pain and suffering is still an open wound for many. As explained by Widdowson although the residential school system is now dismantled, the tendrils of its unexplainable pain continue to disrupt our First People’s complete existence. Aside from the horrors of physical and sexual abuse, the church is accused of destroying aboriginal culture by forcing aboriginal children to speak English and adopt Christianity, but disrupting community child-rearing practices, and by subjecting aboriginal children to disciplines that were alien to their traditions. These practices, it is argued, deprived 18 | A i r d aboriginal peoples of their cultural pride and community integrity, resulting in the dependency and social pathologies in existence today” (Widdowson, 2008, p.24). The residential school system caused such severe hurt and eradication of tradition because it affected the future generations of First Nations that were needed to pass on tradition. In the removal from their families, land and tradition, colonialism created a generation of confusion, loss of selfhood and anomie. Canada looks to always view these horrible acts against First Nations as in the past, when in reality they are still very alive today and are just less detectable to those who are not oppressed by them. INDIGENOUS LAND AND PLANT CONNECTIONS To begin understanding traditional ways of knowing it is important for settler readers to disregard everything they think they know about First Nations through biases, racist discourse and it is important to acknowledge the privilege that blinds their ability for true understanding. To understand how Indigenous peoples can begin healing from a non-colonial view point, Indigenous thoughts and perspective of the world we live in needs to be understood. Particularly relevant in studies of ethnobotany is Indigenous connections to land and plants. The modern day dislocation from traditional land is also important in understanding the cause for spiritual illness and loss of traditional ways. Wade Davis looks to dismantle negative stigmatism about indigeneity and shows a different light for these people to be viewed in. He states, Their cultural survival does not undermine the nation-state; it serves to enrich it, if the state is willing to embrace it. These cultures do not represent failed attempts at modernity, marginal peoples who somehow missed the technological train of history. On the contrary, these peoples, with their dreams and prayers, their myths and memories, teach us that there 19 | A i r d are indeed other ways of being, alternative visions of life, birth, death, and creation itself” (Davis, 2009, p.204-205). The acknowledgement of alternative ways of knowing and being other than settler society is a key step to the healing of First Peoples. One very different concept that colonial society has issues understanding is the idea of land being a part of the soul rather than a resource for extraction. “The non-separation of nature and humans is one of the demarcations between Eurocentered and Indigenous philosophy. This demarcation creates completely distinct paradigms of reality, truth and knowing” (Ross, 2014, p.31). Particularly important to this topic are Christine Elsey’s studies of British Columbia Indigenous poetics of self through land and connections. If we understand land through a decolonized view we may be able to understand why the removal from their traditional land was so devastating. It also reveals how connections to land can restore Indigenous health problems and spiritual illness today. A worldview beyond dualistic thinking presents me with an interactive environment which is a part of me and which is “enfolded” into the fabric of my own body as my own experience of my skin. Thus, with non-dualism, the notion of self is not an individual self but a collective self which encompasses all my experiences within a given context of terrestrial social action, which in the case of First Nations can be explained as the tribal territory. The perception of the land as an entire way of life looms large for many treatyless First Nations within British Columbia and, for First Nations, takes precedence over the economic viewpoint. The experience of the land as an enfoldment of all people’s experiences and stories gives rise to the realization that the land is inseparably connected to personhood- not simply inert or external to personal identity and being. Identity rather is a regional and territorial matter that speaks to human experiences-on the land, within a 20 | A i r d particular culture, linguistic and geographic niche- and therefore, is a specific to a distinct group of territorial dwellers rather than being homogeneous across First Nations (Elsey, 2013, p.9). Land calls to a deeper lived experience than just a resource for extraction. For British Columbian First Nations their traditional land is an active and alive piece of themselves. Upon looking out on a terrain Indigenous people see not just a piece of themselves that is connected to their very personhood, they also see a landscape of memories, connections and spirituality. Elsey in describing Indigenous personhood marks two very important concepts she refers to as poiesis and storyscapes. A poiesis of being and doing (as an active emergence of the self’s expression) ultimately speaks to the people’s being-on-the-land collectively and to the land’s meaning as a spiritual value, as well as to a community personality in both aesthetic and moral terms. Such a poiesis also communicates the experiential and emotive nexus of the people in the land and of the land in the people and to the realization of all their experiences of life. A poiesis of people and land by necessity speaks to the matter of First Nation’s identity and collective selfhood, since the cultural/aesthetic expressions occurring within a given First Nation emerge out of an experience of enfoldment with their territorial environment, as their own extended body. The oral traditions and poetic/ aesthetic moments arising from the territory demonstrate the spiritual and emotional afflictions of the people as situated (Elsey, 2013, p.10-11). Elsey and her studies of the poetics of land connections and the intrinsically interconnected ideologies of self-enfoldment into land, tradition and place challenge modern day thinking about land and its importance to First Nations. This is the very beauty of First Nation existence and all 21 | A i r d the factors that contribute to it. This is an idea not of just culture but of the very heart and soul and its complex pieces. Land has been viewed previously as important to Indigenous peoples because of it is connection to engaging in traditional activities such as hunting, medicine gathering and spiritual events, however colonial society assumed that just giving First Nations “land” on a forced relocated reservation could replace traditional territories. Elsey dismantles this horribly incorrect ideology that has been continually justified through the land claim and reservation systems. The idea that specific land had specific significance to these people has only begun to be acknowledged today. With that being said, little progress has been made in the sense that colonial society is still trying to put a monetary value on land to this day. Elsey furthers her argument against colonial land perspective through her idea of storyscapes. Storyscapes are, Poetically defined cultural landscapes that are anchored by aesthetic or artistic moments that speak to the meaningfulness of the land and territory within the identity of the local peoples. The many artistic and poetic expressions of territorial existence nested within storyscapes speak non-dualistically to the people’s experience in practical, affective and spiritual terms. In the absence of Cartesian modes of thinking, their surrounding territory is tantamount to the people’s experience of their own skin as they are enfolded with it in their “ownmost” experience of identity. As such, the tribal territories of First Nations within British Columbia must be seen as inalienable as they carry a meaning that is clearly not measurable or calculable in economic terms (Elsey, 2013, p.14-15). The embodiment of land as a piece of one’s self is one of the most important concepts in Indigenous ways of being and knowing. Canadian Indigenous peoples entire culture and systems of knowledge are based on the ideology of everything living and non-living as connected. “Such instances of communal interaction with nature reflect a basic idea of natural community, of 22 | A i r d human beings who are active participants along with all others entities and energies within an environment” (Cajete, 2000, p.113). First Nations belief system starts from the exact opposite of colonial views of land. To understand Indigenous perspective and connections is to acknowledge that humans are an active participant in a world larger than us. They do not view land as a resource for extraction but rather a piece of their soul that they were put on this Earth by the Creator to protect. The view of everything being connected is extremely important because, “the indigenous understanding is that we carry an ethical responsibility toward rocks, trees, water and all life-an ethical responsibility identical to the one we recognize when we deal with other human beings” (Ross, 2014, p.30). There is the belief that in nurturing all of our connections in this world, living and non-living, we are nurturing the most important piece of ourselves which is our soul. In our modern extreme resource extraction we not only are hurting the environment but we are disrespecting the job the Creator gave us; that is, protect Mother Nature. We are slowly destroying a piece of ourselves with every tree that is over extracted. One fallacy in settler rejection of Indigenous ideologies is that it points to the believed flaws in Indigenous land connections and ways of being while simultaneously cloaking its own. We accept it as normal that people who have never been on the land, who have no history or connection to the country, may legally secure the right to come in and by the very nature of their enterprises leave in their wake a cultural and physical landscape utterly transformed and desecrated. What’s more, in granting such mining concessions, often initially for trivial sums to speculators from distant cities, companies cobbled together with less history than my dog, we place no cultural or market value on the land itself. The cost of destroying a natural asset, or its inherent worth if left intact, has no metric in the economic calculations that support the industrialization of the wild. No company has to 23 | A i r d compensate the public for what it does to the commons, the forests, mountains, and rivers, which by definition belong to everyone. As long as there is a promise of revenue flows and employment, it merely requires permission to proceed. We take this as a given for it is the foundation of our system, the way commerce extracts value and profit in a resource-driven economy. But if you think about it, especially from the perspective of so many other cultures, touched and inspired by quite different visions of life and land, it appears to be very odd and highly anomalous human behavior (Davis, 2009, p.119). In systemically perpetuating the idea of Indigenous inferiority and opposition, this projection further justifies the blatant disregard for Indigenous land beliefs. Rather than looking at the severe destruction of the Earth and the pollution that poisons us as humans, colonial society looks to legitimate this destruction through ideas of modernity, industrialism, and most importantly the idea of this destruction being for the greater of society. Extreme would be one word for a civilization that contaminates with its waste the air, water, and soil; then drives plants and animals to extinction on a scale not seen on earth since the disappearance of the dinosaurs; that dams the rivers, tears down ancient forests, empties the seas of fish, and does little to curtail industrial processes that threaten to transform the chemistry and physics of the atmosphere” (Davis, 2009, p.195). Colonial society may disregard Aboriginal belief systems but when Mother Nature is forever destroyed we as a human race will have to face the idea that we did this to ourselves for temporary monetary value. The effort of First Peoples to restore their ways of being, the wellbeing of their souls and connections, may seem like an impossible task. “Aboriginal peoples in Canada, and elsewhere, are involved in a foot race: to preserve their cultural knowledge and 24 | A i r d local, geographic identity before time and assimilationist policies erase the historical threads to their immediate and practicing pasts” (Elsey, 2013, p.13). TRADITIONAL MEDICINE USES FOR TODAY This study of ethnobotany of Secwepemcúl’ecw is important because it looks to cultural restoration and traditional medicine as a means of solving Indigenous health problems. In modern settler society, Indigenous health problems examined through a lens of scientific medicine does not comprehensively address the unique health issues of First Nations. In cases of spirit illness for example, modern medical techniques would lead to a potential miss diagnosis of depression, psychosis, degrading diagnoses’ or racist implications that the source of illness stemmed from substance abuse. Lack of respect or understanding of Indigenous ways of being and knowing can actually further or worsen the case of spirit illness. Spirit illness and other unique Indigenous health issues are more effectively solved through the support and traditional healing from their community, spiritual intervention from a traditional healer and traditional medicine that have been used by their peoples since the beginning of their existence. Modern medicine assumes a comprehensive understanding of all human health with the expectation of the soul and spirit; this is something that traditional medicine does. Traditional healing looks to connections, plant based medicine, spirituality and traditional practices to compressively address the healing of mind, body and soul. Indigenous traditional thought also believes that the soul and spirit are connected to all other health issues and that in healing the soul and spirit; all other health ailments can be solved. Just as the spirit is at the center of each of us, so the spirit is also at the center of everything else within this creation. The spirit is always at the center. When we live our life with other 25 | A i r d spirit-centered beings in this creation, our relationship to one another is also, first of all, from spirit to spirit. Our roles as human beings is to preserve that relationship, to maintain the spiritual order and structure of the world… Indigenous psychology and Indigenous culture can only be fully and properly understood from within this belief: that spirit is the central and primary energy, cause and motivator in life (Dumont, 2006). The most important piece of Indigenous ways of being that needs to be understood is connections. Everything is connected and engaged in mutual relationships that give back to each other. Modern medicine fails to acknowledge the broken connections that live in the spirit, minds and hearts of First Nations. Traditional medicine looks to find why and how mending these connections destroyed by colonialism will change the world we live in. If we can repair broken connections through restoring tradition and pride in First Nations, there will be a revolution in the Indigenous communities we see today. Traditional medicine and enthnobotany have the ability to heal these broken connections. In doing so, will also change the way Indigenous communities are viewed by settler society. Traditional healing is a means to restore culture and tradition to future generations and to ensure that traditional ways of existence are not lost forever. Traditional healing is not only important because of the Indigenous health epidemic today but because in recognizing the importance and value traditional healing has to offer it will forever change how Indigenous epistemological systems are viewed, validated and respected. It is the offering to understand a peoples who are of equal systems of knowing and to begin dismantling the racist discourse that undermines Indigenous peoples today. 26 | A i r d ETHNOBOTANY OF SECWEPEMCÚL’ECW Ethnobotany of Secwepemcúl’ecw is of particular importance because of the inseparable connection that our First Nations share with the land. Prior to colonialism, land based practices provided the only means of survival and through trial and error in the past these peoples have a comprehensive knowledge of every piece of existence within this territory. This is a connection that is sacred and at times extremely hard to explain to those of settler heritage. Traditional plant use of Thompson peoples was used in every aspect of their lives. It would be unrealistic to separate completely the roles of plants as foods, materials and medicines in traditional Thompson life. Since many medicines were consumed, as infusions or decoctions, or chewed and swallowed in entirety, they would have had some nutritional impact on the person taking them. Many ‘medicines,’ especially those classed as ‘tonics,’ were consumed routinely, over a long period of time, and as a replacement for beverages. Furthermore, some ‘foods’ and beverages were themselves considered to have medicinal properties, either for particular aliments or for general maintenance of health (Turner, 1990, p.43). Plant use was broken down into main groups that included plants as food and used in food preparation, plant beverage, chewing plants, flavoring and seasonings, plants used for smoking, plants used as materials, plants used for spirituality and plants used as medicine. “Medicinal plants compromised the greatest proportion of plant species used by the Thompson. At least 200 species were used in some way as herbal medicines for ‘natural’ or ‘physical’ illness and injuries or for the maintenance of physical health” (Turner, 1990, p.43). Plant medicine was also consumed often through daily food intake from the land, so in doing that First Nations sustained their health previously through a healthy diet of nutrient rich natural medicine. When we speak 27 | A i r d of the medicinal plant use by the Thompson we speak not only about general healing but also of a complex system of herbal medicines used to treat every health ailment imaginable. The following figure shows the complexity of local Indigenous plant knowledge and medicine that involves hundreds of species in total. Figure 2 Number of Plant Species Used To Treat Different Illnesses (Turner, 1990, p.43) Although colonial society can make traditional medicine seem like a defective, simplistic and unscientific form of healing it is actually a very intricate and complex way of healing. From the spiritual cleansing and traditional picking used by First Nations to the ways to which the medicine is administered is an intricate process. “The simultaneous role of certain plants as agents of physical cleansing, purification, protection and acquisition of success, wealth, power and good fortune illustrates the multiple facets of one concept within the traditional Thompson belief system namely the existence of spiritual power embodied in these plants that manifested itself in a variety of ways” (Turner, 1990, p.54). In incorrectly cleansing and respecting the plants being harvested, the medicine could become ineffective and actually have the opposite 28 | A i r d effect of healing. A lack of respect for the life of the plant being taken for healing, inappropriate prayers, failure to acknowledge specific traditions for example the offering of tobacco and asking permission to harvest the medicines are considered an extremely dangerous. Such practices are dangerous because they disrespect the connections to all things needed for survival and to protect them as the Creator put us on the Earth to do. In not giving back to what gives us the ability to survive, we are hurting the only things keeping us alive. The Thompson believed that ‘flowers, plants and grass especially the latter are the covering or blanket of the earth. If too much plucked or ruthlessly destroyed earth sorry and weeps. It rains or is angry and makes rain, fog & bad weather’. Hence, vegetation was a resource, but was not to be used carelessly or indiscriminately because it represents a spiritual power that could effect, positively or negatively, various aspects of Thompson life (Turner, 1990, p.54). The respect for connections to all things is a key ideology in the health and healing for First Nations. Failure to address all connections leads to the current destructive environment settler society has created. The use of land and plant based respectful resource extraction for the restoration of health and tradition of Indigenous communities is a sustainable and non-damaging way of living. In acknowledging that First Nation’s carry deeper understanding and spiritual connection to plants, land and all things, repair towards the healing from the horrific pasts they suffered from can begin. HOW ETHNOBOTANY CURES How traditional ethnobotany and medicine looks to cure Indigenous health issues is through healing of the soul. The main factor that influences this is traditional plant use 29 | A i r d restoration. Traditional healing and spiritual cleansing that local First Nations practice mentally engages them in a different way of understanding the world we live in. Traditional plant use can be restored through many different ways. One way is through elder engagement and community programs that look to teach youth and adults who may have missed the opportunity to learn through assimilation policy. This could range from elder based spirituality programs, to on the land lived experiences. This engagement with traditional ways could ensure that future generations do not lose this important information. Important also will be the aspect of validating Indigenous epistemological systems and traditional healing. A way of doing this would be through a decolonized education system that allows for all students to respectfully engage with traditional ethnobotany and land. Educating the generation of tomorrow through a system that recognizes this traditional knowledge as valid and important will also break down systems of hegemony and racist discourse. If children of all backgrounds have the option to learn about the poetics of existence that come from respecting all connections in this world, there will be a change in the way that First Nations and their beliefs are viewed and respected by settler society. In the practice of respectful resource extraction and validation of different ways of healing, future generations will have the tools to work towards a health care system that embodies the needs of all people and their unique connections. Restoration of traditional medicine and ethnobotany starts today with challenging systems that oppress and reject Indigenous ways of knowing and being. In the embracing of different ways of knowing and being other than colonial as being valid, there opens gaps that allow for change and revolution. If by contrast, your way of knowing focuses on relationships rather than individual people, it will be natural to see that the relationship rather than individual people, it will be natural 30 | A i r d to see that the relationships between human, animal, plant and earth/water aspects of Creation are fundamentally those of dependency. Once you do that, everything changes. We become, in our own eyes, dependent on the health of everything else. Our obligation then must be to promote accommodation with, rather than seek dominance over, all things (Ross, 2014, p.11). Ethnobotany is not just about healing unique Indigenous health problems today that modern medicine fails to address, but it is about validation and respect of different ways of knowing. It’s about recognizing First Nations peoples that Canada has systemically been destroying since the day of colonialism and empowering them. Through a literature review of indigenous knowledge, it is proposed by several Indigenous scholars that the wellness of an Aboriginal community can only be adequately measured from within an indigenous knowledge framework which is a holistic and inclusive approach that seeks balance between the spiritual, emotional, physical, and social spheres of life. Their findings indicate that high rates of social problems, demoralization, depression, substance abuse, and suicide are prevalent in many Aboriginal communities and must be contextualized within a decolonization or self-determination model. The evidence of linkages between the poor mental health of Aboriginal peoples and the history of colonialism is key to improving the wellness in communities. Conversely, there is sufficient evidence that strengthening cultural identity, community integration, and political empowerment contributes to improvement of mental health in Aboriginal populations (Hill, 2016). Restoration of traditional ways that are viewed as valuable and equal is the first stepping stone in Indigenous healing and gives back the sense of pride in self-hood that was forcibly extracted 31 | A i r d from their souls. The traditional ways of healing also will appropriately address the health epidemic that Indigenous communities face today. Plants and land are at the soul of healing for First Nations because it was the inextricable piece of them that was removed forcibly. Allowing for healing of land and all traditional relationships therefore enables change in the health and well-being of First Nations in the future. With looking to all our connections and nurturing them we begin to restore our health and the ways of our people. TRADITIONAL PLANT NAMES AND USES In Nancy Turner’s Thompson Ethnobotany there is a large emphasis on traditional classification, taxonomy, names and their origins. These systems are important to acknowledge and understand when studying ethnobotany because it leads to a more in-depth understanding of the plant uses and origins and it also shows respect for the Indigenous epistemologies that surround traditional knowledge and healing. Turner explains that plant names often originate from hierarchical levels determined by plant use and importance. The taxonomy of the plants and their categorization levels begin at the top with very broad ideologies of plants and then begin to get more specific. From Turner’s research she came to the hierarchal levels (Figure 3) which begin with Unique Beginner (i.e. “plants), followed by life form classes, intermediate classes, generic level classes and lastly specific level classes. This hierarchy of plants is similar to the colonial plant taxonomy categories in the sense that there are several levels ranging from broad to specific terms for each plant. The first level which is “plants” does not need to be further discussed because it is fairly straight forward. The two following levels though which are life form classes and intermediate 32 | A i r d classes are of higher importance to understanding Indigenous taxonomy. Turner provides the following figure which shows the major life form categories in the Thompson. Figure 3 (Turner, 1990, p.60) 33 | A i r d Figure 4 (Turner, 1990, p.61) These major plant life form categories, which are broad, can occasionally leads to the overlapping of plant classification categories by the Indigenous peoples using it. At this level of classification it could be said to be more based from economic usage as well as growth form. The classification for this level is very comprehensible because it is based from what is seen. Most people can easy categorize plants into categories such as large trees, fruit bearing plants, flowers and etc. This category allows an easy understanding to people of all ages about traditional major life form categories as well as an opportunity to learn and understand traditional names of the categories. The importance of learning the traditional names is based on the respect and ideology that these categories are just as valid and equal to the colonial categories for plant taxonomy. At 34 | A i r d an early age child could be easily taught that s/yép is also large trees. This instills a sense of respect at a young age for Indigenous forms of knowledge, while also showing validity and equality to the comparable Western knowledge. The incorporation of traditional names with colonial education allows for a future of openness to different ways of being and knowing, therefore leading to the disintegration of racist discourse and the fear of cultural difference. The next category of importance is intermediate classes which involve more specific categorization. Turner shows a few examples of these intermediate class categories in the following tables. Figure 5 (Turner, 1990, p.63) 35 | A i r d Figure 6 (Turner, 1990, p.64) This categorization comes from, “convenience, established probably in many cases spontaneously, and based on observed similarities of many different types and dimensions. A number of the categories are of the association type, where one or more plants are grouped together around a more obvious, outstanding, or economically important plant” (Turner, 1990, p.62). An example of this is in the difference Indigenous peoples made between colonially named “poisonous plants” and “rash causing plants” rather than placing them within one larger category of “dangerous plants”. This level of plant categorization comes from thousands of years of plant use, passing of traditional knowledge through generations of Indigenous peoples, and systems of trial and error in traditional plant use. Also important to note is the knowledge that different bands and Indigenous groups shared with each other during times of more nomadism. Because of the extremely dynamic and extensive amount of plants and their uses, the contact 36 | A i r d with other healers led to the passing of knowledge of different and new ways to use plants for healing purposes. “Intermediate taxa may be quite ephemeral, and may evolve rapidly to accommodate changes in relative importance of various plants”(Turner, 1990, p.65). This is something that is still extremely relevant even up to today because of the introduction into our ecosystem of foreign commercial and domestic plants. This then makes this category one that is ever changing over time. This aligns with the Indigenous oral traditions which allowed for changing and dynamic knowledge forms. The last level classes are generic and specific, generic level terms are “basically descriptive, pertaining to growth form, habitat, flower colour or to other plants” (Turner, 1990, p.63). This categorization further specifies different plant variations from the intermediate level. In this category things can be seen such as one name for two species of spruce where as in the previous category it would be a base term for all spruce and similar trees. Distinguishing between specific plant species is important and extremely advanced categorization. This level of categorization comes from a very long history of life revolving around land and a deep understanding of connections to the natural world. The next category embodies this as well but unfortunately this category is something more recognized and understood through oral traditions and specific Indigenous group variations rather than being linguistically encoded. “There are very few examples of named “specific” level plant taxa in Thompson. The most obvious are the different “varieties” of saskatoon berry, each with its own specific name” (Turner, 1990, p.67). As time goes on the levels and names of plant categorization and taxa is an ever changing process. “Folk classification among the Thompson has been an evolving system, representing a whole spectrum of perceived relationships among plants, from very broad and general to minute and specific. New taxa have been readily incorporated; old ones decreasing in significance have 37 | A i r d undoubtedly been allowed to fade out” (Turner, 1990, p.67). Most important to understand about Indigenous plant names and categorization is the level of complexity it involves and that this knowledge is not something easily obtained and understood. This knowledge comes from thousands of years of plant understanding that colonial knowledge cannot even come close to. “Plant names at all taxonomic levels, combined with terminology pertaining to the harvesting, preparation and use of plants and other botanical knowledge, constitute a major segment of Thompson vocabulary” (Turner, 1990, p.67). It’s the idea of a deeper understanding of plants, their souls and the respect these living things deserve. Indigenous people believe in animism which is the lifestyle and traditional beliefs that animals, plants, inanimate objects and natural phenomenon all carry a spirit and soul, and this leads to a different connection to the natural world than most colonial viewpoints can acknowledge. Indigenous ties and spiritual connections with plants allowed them to develop a deep understanding of the extremely diverse plant populations in the colonial viewed “Thompson region”. HOLISTIC HEALING VS BIOMEDICAL CURES Today in modern medicine there has been a revolutionary shift towards holistic healing rather than biomedical cures. People of all cultural backgrounds are looking for other options that best suit their healing needs. This is because of the complications that arise from biomedical cures mainly. An example of this is the overuse of antibiotics which had led to their ineffectiveness over time. Particularly people suffering from chronic illness often look to natural and holistic healing when biomedical cures offer them no results, surplus of side effects or make them worse off than before. Many people of colonial descent would argue that, ‘the greater efficiency of scientific methodology explains why so much progress has been in the development 38 | A i r d of drugs in the last two hundred years, while aboriginal and herbal medicine has remained the same” (Widdowson, 2008, p.187). Another argument common against traditional healing is that, “attempts to justify the use of traditional medicine and increasing aboriginal control of health care rely on flawed reasoning, poor analysis, and postmodern sophistry” (Widdowson, 2008, p.183). These arguments against traditional medicine are not only extremely flawed but also driven by the racist discourse that is invisible in society today. To begin, the argument that scientific medicine is ever changing yet Aboriginal healing stays the same does not make traditional healing lesser but perhaps more effective depending on the worldview you embody. In traditional healing when something works there is no reason to change it. In the framework of traditional healing, development and implementations of new healing was done thousands of years ago and was practiced since then. Looking to biomedical cures there is no doubt that they are effective in healing, especially in the cases of those who embody settler worldview, but these healing practices can also carry negative impacts for Indigenous people. Healing it is never a question of right or wrong but rather which is best suited for individual human variation. The days where it was acceptable to intentionally undermine Indigenous people truly never existed, and the fact that people still do this just shows the power of colonialism and discourse. “History suggests that dominant groups do not need excuses to ravage the weak, and I do not believe that any theory emerges from these new studies will some-how tip the balance and in and of itself lead to the disenfranchisement of a people” (Davis, 2009, p.15). Since the day of colonialism, settlers have ruthlessly disenfranchised and systemically destroyed indigeneity. The language used by colonial tongues to try and dismantle traditional healing is repulsive, offensive and ignorant. A question I cannot seem to get out of my head since I embarked on this project is why colonial viewpoints reject ideas of traditional healing so aggressively. Is it because it offers 39 | A i r d viable solutions or perhaps the fear of a different ways of knowing and being drives this negative discourse about traditional healing, or maybe as a society the idea of change outside of specific framework will always be viewed as a threat? In the wake of Indigenous liberation and empowerment there was been a push back against these undermining views on Indigenous traditional healing. The use of traditional medicine alongside biomedical modern medicine will not only benefit Indigenous patients and their unique health problems but all human beings. Marcia DeCoteau is an Indigenous doctor who incorporates traditional medicine into her daily practice. She claims that her dedication to traditional medicine not only comes from her Cree-Saulteaux background but from the racism she saw while in medical school. She states that, "I think one of the ways to confront the racism in health care is to value Indigenous knowledge around health and healing" (Brown, 2016). Decoteau not only believes that traditional healing is beneficial to First Nations healing, but also that it helps to stop racism in the health care system. This racism in the health care system inevitably leads to further health problems for these people because they are not treated appropriately or adequately. An example that DeCoteau gives is the patient she saw who was a 50 year old First Nations man who was complaining of chest pains. Upon talking, showing respect and understanding to this elder the truth came out. “While I was talking to him he told me that the chest pain only comes on when he's having panic attacks related to his sexual abuse as a child. And so instead of really pushing on the need for any cardiac tests … we talked about the role of elders, men and taking care of his spirit." (Brown, 2016). This doctor was able to offer actual life cures for this man’s issues, rather than pushing medication on this man she assessed all aspects of his health and how she could help him to truly heal rather than just numb the pain with medication. Not only is DeCoteau fighting to break the racist underpinnings 40 | A i r d of the medical system but she is advocating for traditional healthcare system that co-exists with biomedical cures. This is because together the two can revolutionize the currently health care system and lead to a healthier human race. In the interview done by CBC, Decoteau even speaks of how her co-workers feel about this traditional healing. She stated that, “"doctors and nurses say 'Well we're not going to be recommending that,' [and] 'We don't think that's right, there's no evidence behind it'" (Brown, 2016). Even a medical doctor receives negative push back from her fellow health care providers, when all DeCotea wants is for “patients to be able to can access traditional healing practices if requested. But she observed that there's still a lot of opposition from others in the field” (Brown, 2016). This discrimination and rejection of Indigenous traditional healing could be why the Indigenous population’s health is suffering so badly right now. “DeCoteau pointed out that when traditional medicines are used alongside western medicine: There's never been any evidence of harm" (Brown, 2016). The idea of these two different forms of medicine working together to offer people of all origins the best possible health care is so important. It allows for the potential of actual healing rather than just a numbing or silencing of symptoms. This revolutionary idea of the incorporation of traditional healing into biomedical cures is something that more health care systems and medical workers need to understand. Another remarkable story of traditional healing is the Anishnawbe man from Ontario who cured his leukemia via traditional healing practices. His name is Archie and this now 47 year old man was given a fifty percent chance of survival after hearing his leukemia diagnosis at age 19. After months of pain and unsuccessful treatment via western medicine Archie looked to traditional healing for help. Archie found a medicine man named Eddie Two-Teeth who would help him and through traditional ceremonies such as, “the sweat lodge and shaking tent.” This 41 | A i r d alongside traditional medicine led to Archie being cured. Archie stated, "He gave me some medicine, it was a small tree and he told me to wrap it in a circle (it was about six to eight inches across) and to boil that and drink the water from there and to drink it for 30 days" and “the healer told him to keep a positive attitude and when the 30 days were up to go to a doctor for a blood test” (Porter, 2014). Today Archie is still cancer free and credits his healing to traditional medicine and the creator stating that, "With traditional medicine, it's with the help of the Creator and with Western medicine it's all just all chemicals and drugs that they put into your body. With the ceremonies, the Creator is right there. They don't even talk about that in the hospital"(Porter, 2014). This article also raises the idea that traditional medicine should and can co-exist with western medicine. Teresa Trudeau who is the traditional healing coordinator at Anishnawbe Mushkki native health center stated. "It's not an either/or, you can work hand in hand with traditional and Western medicine, in fact it's necessary," and that “traditional healers often rely on diagnostics such as blood tests or X-rays to better treat their patients” (Porter, 2014). The two different systems of knowing and healing come together to form an extremely powerful and revolutionary way of healing, particularly for Indigenous patients it would offer treatments that are culturally acceptable. What this allows is the most important aspect of healing which Trudeau discusses. She poetically states, “We are healers within all of us. That's what our healers do. They show us how to heal ourselves on our own," and "it's not the healer who heals us. You heal yourself" (Porter, 2014). The power of mind that is associated with healing is very important to acknowledge. In Indigenous epistemologies of healing, the most important ideology is that everything is connected. In being sick many western medicines look to cure the symptoms of that illness, 42 | A i r d but they forget to encompass all aspects of health which is particularly important to Indigenous patients. The mind, body and soul are all connected, when one falls ill the others suffer as well. Patients of terminal or lifelong disease mentally struggle, for example Archie as discussed above, became was extremely ill from his cancer, and beat down by the painful cancer treatments and he began mentally giving up. In Indigenous healing cures that incorporate all aspects of health, the patient’s odds of healing are more effective because not just the illness is acknowledged, but all aspects of their health. If all aspects of being are acknowledged and treated, the body has a better ability to mentally and physically fight off illness. As we look to tomorrow and changing the world we live in, a change to our health care system to one that appropriately and respectfully heals our First Nations peoples is not an option but an imperative factor in stopping this health epidemic that has taken over Indigenous communities. “Much more research needs to be done concerning the efficacy of the traditional medicines of the Thompson and other native peoples in western North America. Chemical properties of some of the herbs –for example, cascara –are known, but the majority of the species listed here have yet to be thoroughly analyzed chemically, let alone tested for their pharmacological properties or even potential toxicological effects” (Turner, 1990, p.53). If as a society we learn more about Indigenous healing, we can help destroy the negative view that many hold over traditional healing. “There is little doubt, from the research that has been done, that many, probably most, of these medicinal plants do contain drugs that are pharmacologically active to some degree” (Turner, 1990, p.53). The rejection of this traditional healing not only is hurting our First Peoples but it also is hurting the greater society because of the toxic racism that plagues society today which rejects any way of being that’s not colonial as invalid. 43 | A i r d These voices matter because they can still be heard to remind us that there are indeed alternatives, other ways of orientating human beings in social, spiritual, and ecological space. This is not to suggest naively that we abandon everything and attempt to mimic the ways of non-industrial societies, or that any culture be asked to forfeit its right to benefit from the genius of technology. It is rather to draw inspiration and comfort from the fact that the path we have taken is not the only one available, our destiny therefore is not indelibly written in a set of choices that demonstrably and scientifically have proven not to be wise. By their very existence the diverse cultures of the world bear witness to the folly of those who say that we cannot change, as we all know we must, the fundamental manner in which we inhabit this planet (Davis, 2009, p.218). Society is quick to forget that we all inhabit this earth as one beautiful and dynamic race. Rather than rejecting and running in fear from diversity in being, we need to embrace that there is more than one way to do things. We need to empower rather than reject and hurt, for at the end of every day we close our eyes under the same sky. There is such a strength that comes from the unity and love of diverse peoples being accepted for their difference and what they have to offer, we just have to be willing to listen to their perspective and open our minds to a different and equal way of living. WHY NOW This study of how ethnobotany influences our perception of healing and medicine is of such importance right now is because of the current epidemic of Indigenous health problems. Indigenous people have never been sicker or unhealthier. Some examples of this can been seen in Canadian statistics that show high rates of suicide, lack of adequate food and drinking water, and 44 | A i r d rampant chronic illness. “Six in ten off-reserve First Nations people (61%) and Métis (60%) and 42% of Inuit aged 12 and older reported that they had been diagnosed with at least one chronic condition.” (Statistics Canada, 2015). This illness is a direct reflection of a system of marginalization and discourse that seeks to always undermine and prove inadequacy. “Many Indigenous peoples lost their identities and their place within their own world, a condition which is frequently expressed through substance abuse, violence, criminalization and involvement within the child welfare system, as well as behaviors associated with internal oppression, colonization and poverty” (Elsey, 2013, p.6). I viewed this as an important time to do something and try to make a change because I felt that I am coming to a time in my academics where my voice can finally be heard and appreciated. The time that the implementation of traditional medicine should have been restored was never, because it should have never been dismissed or intentionally rejected. Due to colonialism traditional medicine has been rejected and replaced by western medicine, but a time of change is upon us. Also of relevance at this point in time is a huge change in civil rights violations and it’s almost if we as a society have taken a step backwards from progress of antiracism and equality. During times when the darkness engulfs society and media with horrible characteristics of human nature, it becomes of extreme importance to not submit to these ideologies, but rather resist and keep pushing for positive change. If society does not continue to advocate for Indigenous rights and equalities we could forever destroy the last of their surviving culture and ways of being. This is something that if lost, may never be restored. “The real threat to humanity”, Pinker writes, “comes from the totalizing ideologies and the denial of human rights, rather than curiosity about nature and nurture” (Davis, 2009, p.16). In times like these where 45 | A i r d discourse and morals of right and wrong change daily and often not for the better, it’s important to remember how important diversity of people and cultures are to our survival. As cultures wither away, individuals remain, often shadows of their former selves, caught in time, unable to return to the past, yet denied any real possibility of securing a place in the world whose values they seek to emulate and wealth they long to acquire. This creates a dangerous and explosive situation, which is precisely why the plight of diverse cultures is not a simple matter of nostalgia or even of human rights alone, but a serious issue of geopolitical stability and survival” (Davis, 2009, p.198). Wade Davis always finds a way to harmoniously speak to the importance of diversification and the magnetic attraction that change and positivity bring to each other. As we look to the future as a human species, it’s important that every person acknowledges that they are the change in the world. It only takes one person advocating for what is right to motive change in the world. CONCLUSION AND LOOKING FORWARD The intended outcome of this project is the realization that traditional healing being incorporated into modern medicine is mandatory for Indigenous healing and that traditional healing and ethnobotany are valid, complex epistemological systems that are equivalent forms of healing. The importance of this study is not only on healing but on the recognition, acceptance and understanding of Indigenous systems of knowing and being. It is an act of acknowledgement to a peoples who have been systemically shamed for who they are since the beginning of colonialism. This project celebrates the diversity and the complex forms of knowledge our First Peoples have to offer and acknowledges the opportunity we have to do right from the wrongs of 46 | A i r d colonialism. This is an attempt to show that different is not to be feared and rejected but to be welcomed, respected and celebrated. What sets worlds in motion is the interplay of differences, their attractions and repulsions. Life is plurality, death is uniformity. By suppressing differences and peculiarities, by eliminating different civilizations and cultures, progress weakens life and favors death. The ideal of a single civilization for everyone, implicit in the cult of progress and technique, impoverishes and mutilates us. Every view of the world that becomes extinct, every culture that disappears, diminishes a possibility of life (Paz, 1967). The methodology and knowledge passed down from thousands of generations of First Nation’s presents knowledge that is nothing less of extremely complex in its methodologies and philosophies. In acknowledging Indigenous epistemologies through a lens of equality in academics today, the possibility of breaking one of the largest forms of discourse that still hurts Indigenous peoples today becomes more possible than ever. This is the education system that decides who, where, what, why and how things are to be done and it often rejects Indigenous epistemologies as not scholarly enough. We have this idea that these indigenous peoples, these distant others quaint and colourful though they may be, are somehow destined to fade away. As if by natural law, as if they are failed attempts at being us. This is simply not true. In every case these are dynamic living peoples being driven out of existence by identifiable and overwhelming external forces. This is actually an optimistic observation, for it suggests that if human beings are the agents of cultural destruction, we can also be the facilitators of cultural survival (Davis, 2009, p.167). 47 | A i r d When colonial society has the ability to embrace that Indigenous peoples are not failed attempts at modernization but rather a people that simply just view the world differently, then growth and acceptance can truly occur. Looking to the future and how Indigenous ethnobotany and traditional healing can evoke change, the opportunities are endless. The most important change that needs to happen is the acceptance, understanding and implementation of traditional healing in Canadian medical systems. This offers holistic healing, cultural restoration, Indigenous validation and pride in their ways of being, sense of acceptance, ability to educate, self-governance of healthcare and the potential for building back strength and knowledge lost through colonization. For this to be implemented Canadian government will likely have to fund programs that allow for medical practitioners to understand Indigenous ways of healing and how to appropriately understand their culture. It also means that facilities and organizations need to be built that allow these healers to be found and contacted for healing. This is something that the First Nations communities would have to organize and decide on, because colonial governments would be unable to accurately pick true gifted healers. In addition this would allow Indigenous people to be active participants in deciding their health care systems and appropriate means of health and healing. “There is already a huge objective body of social science research literature that demonstrates that the solution to Aboriginal poverty, ill health, and marginalization- all the legacy of colonialism-lies in the self-determinism- and thus the decolonization and restoration of Indigenous people to their own culture and ways” (Warry, 2007, p.30). The medical community needs to be open to different means of healing, even if that means an alternative medicine clinic that offers Indigenous traditional healing that at least gives the option for something different, rather than Indigenous people struggling with the western biomedical system as their only option. 48 | A i r d This research project embodies Indigenous research methods that can be somewhat controversial at times because it pulls away from the importance of oral tradition. In the act of cultural understanding and invoking change it becomes necessary for an Indigenous researcher to engage with written scholarship, but in doing this Indigenous researchers bring rare and unique worldviews and research practices to their scholarship. The act of compiling and organizing research findings for publication in and of itself presents a tension for Indigenous researchers who do not wish to compromise or diminish the power of oral culture in knowing. Yet, to remain viable in academic, our research must be written, assessed, and published…The incorporation of narrative story, and self-location found within Indigenous writing is perceived as indulgent rather than being recognized as a methodological necessity flowing from a tribal epistemology….The difficulty is that it is measured against a contrasting worldview that holds a monopoly on knowledge and keeps different forms of inquiry marginalized (Kovach, 2009, p.27). Indigenous scholarship differs from colonial because of the connections it embodies. Not only does it involve all our connections but it also carries the intention to bring light and acceptance to Indigenous people’s ways of being. “Knowledge …is not… the ultimate goal, rather the goal is the change that this knowledge may help to bring about….Research is not … worthy or ethical if it does not help to improve the reality of the research participants” (Wilson, 2008, p.37). Education is the next step towards decolonization and understanding of traditional medicine and ethnobotany. This can be done at all levels, but the primary focus should be on the elementary grades so that children can begin learning Indigenous epistemologies at a young age that allows them to understand they are equal systems of knowing and being. In the education of future generations it’s important to embrace cultural diversity and ideas of different ways of 49 | A i r d knowing and being. What I envision is an outdoor education class that allows children to be outdoors but also to understand a deeper meaning and value to plant life and how we could not survive without plants. This also gives the opportunity to teach children outdoor safety and about the excitingly diverse ecosystems of our surrounding areas. In history classes children should learn about colonialism, in geography traditional territories should be taught alongside colonial named places and instead of French there should also be local First Nation language class. Every course can easily include aspects that allow for understanding and respect of our Indigenous peoples, and to start that at a young age just leads to future generations of positive change and further diversification. As the systems of education get higher the opportunities of including Indigenous epistemologies only grows. As this system of change works its way through the generations of tomorrow, within just a few short years the medical healers of tomorrow will come from a generation of understanding and respect for Indigenous culture and traditional healing. That means that they will not fear and resist ideas of traditional medicine like most do currently, but easily incorporate it into their practice because they have spent most of their educational life learning about it through their classes. Part of the problem today in trying to made radical changes is that it is asking people to learn a lot in a short period of time, not to say that isn’t possible, but it is scary to many people. To just gradually learn these things throughout the education system makes change easy and also makes Indigenous epistemologies a part of popular discourse. The key to success with this involves community involvement and teaching in a culturally respectful manner, this could be done even through a mandatory workshop for all educators and the mandatory requirement of courses to engage with First Nations studies alongside settler Canadian studies. 50 | A i r d Positive change is contagious and if there is one thing that I hope was delivered through this paper is idea that everyone’s voice and beliefs matter. Cultures and people are different but this adds to diverse poetics of our existence. It allows for different ideas of life, death, human mental expansion and answers to the unknown. “Aboriginal paradigms include ideas of constant flux, all existence consisting of energy waves/spirit, all things being animate, all existence being interrelated, creation/existence having to be renewed, space/place as an important referent, and language, song, stories, and ceremonies as repositories for the knowledge that arise out of these paradigms” (Little Bear, 2009, p.22). In viewing all our connections and the souls of the world that modernization today is destroying, perhaps we can change the future of our world. “Both phenomenology and Indigenous scholarship argue that, within the Occidental constructions of the physical world, such analytic and classificatory thinking patterns result in an ontological fragmentation which tends to be minimize the importance of lived experience” (Elsey, 2013, p.4). In taking different views on the world the intention is for all humans to understand and realize if we continue on this path of destruction, we will soon destroy everything that keeps us alive. “If research doesn’t’ change you as a person, then you haven’t done it right” (Wilson, 2008, p.135). Personally I took this project on as a means to learn more about traditional healing and medicine as a means of paying respect to my family and our traditions. As the end of traditional healers in my family nears I find myself daily asking what I can do to keep this knowledge alive within my family. This is something that has been easier said than done, but has been one of the most enjoyable and rewarding experiences of my life. It’s brought closeness to my grandmother and father who are both proudly Indigenous and spiritual. I never realized how much it meant to them just to even have anyone of this generation in my family ask about this 51 | A i r d important part of their daily life. Since I embarked on this study I have learnt more in a few months about myself, who I am and my place in the world than I have in the past five years of my life. This study will likely continue for my entire life, as this is not just my thesis project, but a life project I have indebted myself to. I do not want to be the last generations in my family with First Nations values, as these aspects of being are something so beautiful and rare. I want my children and their children to know the story of our people and how we came here through generations of struggles. Most importantly I want them to see the world through one where everything is living and has a soul, where things die every day for our survival and respects need to be paid for both plants and animals giving us their life for our survival. The outcome thus far from this beginning stage of my life journey, is one of such pride and discovery. 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Surrey, BC: Hancock House Publishers. 56 | A i r d APPENDICES APPENDIX A (TABLE 5 THOMPSON PLANT MEDICINES ENCOUNTERED) NANCY TURNER RESEARCH TABLES 1990 57 | A i r d 58 | A i r d 59 | A i r d 60 | A i r d 61 | A i r d 62 | A i r d 63 | A i r d 64 | A i r d 65 | A i r d