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Global Citizenship Education from Across the Pacific: A Narrative Inquiry of
Transcultural Teacher Education in Japan
Edward Howe
Thompson Rivers University
edwardrhowe@gmail.com
Abstract
Teachers and teacher educators play increasingly important roles in creating successful futures
for both individuals and society in light of globalization, increasing diversity, and growing
interdependency. Within the dialectic of global and local, opportunities now for transformational
learning, fostering social justice and global citizenship are unprecedented. However, global
citizenship education (GCE) that explores different conceptual, theoretical, and methodological
considerations of decolonizing citizenship education in practice remains a challenge for teachers.
Thus, this paper describes pedagogies of GCE within pre-service teacher education classes and
high schools in Japan. Furthermore, transcultural stories of several teachers are shared. The
research reported here is based on over two decades of experience as a teacher educator in
Canada and Japan. There is a paucity of long-term research on teachers‘ reflections and
experiences as they attempt to integrate GCE into their teaching, captured through personal
narrative and story. Furthermore, due to a Western hegemony of knowledge, Eurocentric
education, neo-colonialism, and neoliberal/conservative agendas in higher education, the voices
of others outside North America are rarely heard. The research presented here attempts to fill
this gap. This paper investigates these issues and teachers‘ personal practical and professional
knowledge through narratives of transcultural journeys.
Introduction: Marathons and High-Stakes Testing in Japan1
It is not whether you win or lose but how you play the game… but not within Japanese schooling,
rife with high-stakes testing and marathon races from an early age…

1 A previous version of this section was published in the Japan Times, January 27, 2009 (p.12).

Cultural and Pedagogical Inquiry, 2014, 6(1), Special Issue, pp. 25-42
ISSN 1916-3460 © 2014 University of Alberta
http://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/cpi/index

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Children run an 800 m ―marathon‖ in kindergarten

Every year my children have participated in a marathon at our local elementary school in
Saitama, Japan. While my daughter was one of the top runners, my eldest son consistently
placed close to last every year, as he was overweight during his elementary school years. My
son received a congratulatory ―certificate of achievement‖ noting his participation and 79th place.
He came to dread this annual ritual. It was damaging his fragile self-esteem and emerging
identity by blatantly focusing on his physical condition. While students cheered him on at the
finish line, inside he was hurting.
Many of my pre-service teacher education students have shared in this humiliation—one
indicated the marathon was her worst memory of kindergarten! While proponents argue it builds
character and is a motivator for improving physical fitness, most educators agree such methods
are questionable in their efficacy and effectiveness. Thus, I hope my students, many who plan to
become teachers, will lobby to abandon this practice. Nevertheless, school marathons continue
throughout Japan and are a long-standing tradition. They will not disappear without controversy.
Like undokai (sports day), it takes on Olympic proportions, involving the entire school and is
widely attended by parents wielding their video cameras, cheering their children on to ―victory‖.
However, unlike undokai, the focus appears to be on winning, rather than participation and
physical fitness.

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On the other hand, the Japanese school system places so much emphasis on ―equality‖ and
uniformity there is little room for individuality. Athletic students must have some source of
pride and accomplishment. Moreover, all children must eventually confront and overcome their
weaknesses by finding their self-esteem in something they can excel in. It is up to teachers and
parents to provide love and support to give children the strength to get them through the tough
times, and instill a sense of pride, self-confidence and self-worth by recognizing and
acknowledging what they are good at.
What is the purpose of the marathon? According to the Ministry of Education, policy goals
of physical education include ―achieving a society that is active in sports throughout life by
giving everybody the opportunity to engage in sport anywhere, anytime and forever, regardless
of physical strength, age, capability, interest and purpose‖ (Japanese Ministry of Education,
2000). But the marathon doesn‘t achieve these goals. Rather, it further alienates the physically
challenged or below-average students, while glorifying the few winners. Why rank students?
Wouldn‘t it be much better to have students run in heats with others of similar qualifying times?
Then individuals could compete against themselves and aim to improve their personal best.
Are public displays of ranking of students done in other subjects? Not exactly, but in a
manner of speaking, this is accomplished indirectly. Imagine an English essay competition
where all students are ranked and those ranks clearly posted. My bilingual and highly literate
son would easily come first—others would not stand a chance… That is unethical and unfair you
say! Well, it is analogous to the marathon race. Interestingly, in junior high school, my son, as a
native speaker of English, was barred from entering Saitama‘s English speech contest but was
allowed to enter the recitation contest—and won! Furthermore, he has distinguished himself as
one of the top students in his age cohort in academic subjects through numerous rigorous,
competitive, comprehensive tests in preparation for high school entrance exams. These tests are
not all mandatory but most students feel obligated to take them if they are serious about their
studies. The results of these tests show one‘s ranking relative to others. Students are pitted
against one another for coveted positions in the most prestigious public high schools and elite
private schools. The pressure on students is considerable. In the final year of junior high, most
students quit all extra-curricular activities and devote all their energy only to test preparation
with the help of juku (cram schools), only focusing on a narrow range of cognitive skills. Thus,
the ranking of students continues in junior high school with this infamous exam hell and

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pervasive juku phenomena. Students are painfully aware of how they rank relative to their peers
as the tests determine who enters the best high schools, leading to the best universities and
ultimately the best jobs. Upon graduation from junior high (grade 9), students take various
entrance exams to determine which high school they will attend. High school entrance exams
then sort each age cohort into what amounts to an eight-to-ten tier high school ranking system
(Rohlen, 1983, p. 308). Future occupational and status levels (elite, managerial, blue-collar, and
so forth) are closely equated to this ranking. Further, at the point of high school entrance the
entire age cohort is divided into three largely immutable classificatory distinctions: those leaving
school, those entering vocational ranks, and those going on to academic high schools.
Unfortunately, little has changed in the past 30 years since Rohlen‘s (1983) seminal study of
Japan‘s high schools. Furthermore, in light of significant increases in the income gap since the
1970s, only wealthy parents can afford to send their children to the best juku from an early age,
thus giving their children an unprecedented edge. The super elites literally buy a spot for their
children into the best universities, bypassing university entrance exams. The Japanese education
system is in effect helping to reproduce socioeconomic inequities. But is Japan not supposedly a
meritocratic country built on social mobility and principles of equality? Unfortunately, highstakes testing perpetuates the class discrepancies and systemic inequalities within Japanese
society (Dateline Productions, 1985; Goodman & Phillips, 2003; Gordon, Fujita, Kariya, &
LeTendre, 2009).
Throughout the world, there is a perceived crisis of ―falling behind‖ as international
achievement tests become standardized measures of success (Akiba & LeTendre, 2009; Baker &
LeTendre, 2005). Teachers are increasingly under pressure to cover ―core" content at the expense
of arts, humanities, global citizenship education and social justice issues (Howe, 2013; Mundy &
Farrell, 2008). Teaching to the test is becoming more common at all grade levels. But teachers
should look beyond the official curriculum to gain a broader international perspective and to
achieve a deeper cross-cultural understanding of our niche within the global village (Abdi &
Shultz, 2008; Apple, 2011; Banks, 2001; Bates, 2006; Chan, 2008; Evans, Davies, Dean, &
Waghid, 2008; Evans & Reynolds, 2004; Howe, 2003; Mundy & Manion, 2008; Nakamura,
2004; Noddings, 2005; Pike, 2008; Schwille, Dembele, & Schubert, 2007; Stromquist, 2009).
In my view, the marathon is analogous to the race to enter the best universities, the ranking
of institutions and applicants, and the posting of entrance exam results. These are all things we

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could do without. If all the money spent on private tutoring, juku, and other special lessons were
funneled into public schooling, a great deal of meaningful learning could be fostered. It‘s time to
focus on GCE and social justice issues rather than marathons and high-stakes tests. Who is up to
the challenge of educational reform? I believe there is a small but growing cohort of progressiveminded transcultural teachers in Japan (Howe & Xu, 2013). For three such examples, please read
Marina, Ken and Ishimori-sensei‘s stories following a brief description of my own classes.
Teacher Education in Japan Nurturing Collegial Relationships
The significant bonds or kizuna formed between teachers and students and amongst peers
in Japan are noteworthy (Howe, 2013, Sakamoto, 2011). I have experienced this phenomenon of
kizuna with my teacher education students through their four years of study together in small
cohorts of about ten per year. For the past 8 years I have had the pleasure of learning side-byside with my students at Utsunomiya University, a mid-sized national university just 100 km
north of Tokyo in the capital city of Utsunomiya, Tochigi Prefecture. When I started back in the
fall of 2005, I could not understand why my predecessor was in tears as she described to me her
close relationship with her students. Now, I can understand her feelings as I have developed
close ties with each cohort. I have witnessed the growth of these students from wide-eyed high
school graduates to accomplished novice teachers. Every year the English Department and other
departments within Utsunomiya University admit small groups of only about 10 students. A
professor is assigned as a supervisor for each group. This cohort takes many classes together,
developing significant bonds over four years of study. I have managed to keep in touch with
many of my former students, including two featured here. Ken and Marina came to my office in
May 2012 to have teacher-to-teacher conversations with me. It was nice catching up with them.
Both are now married and have several years of teaching under their belts. They are no longer
struggling novice teachers but are well on their way to becoming confident, experienced
professionals. Nevertheless, as younger teachers they still face challenges.
Marina’s Transcultural Journey
Marina first studied math in university. She graduated in 2004. Then she taught high
school math in Chiba before joining the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in order
to volunteer as an overseas teacher in Africa. In a bold move, she quit her job as a high school

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math teacher to teach in Uganda as a volunteer with JICA. Marina spent nearly 2 ½ years in
Uganda. Upon returning to Japan, Marina wondered how she could build on her teaching
background and extensive cross-cultural experience. She wanted to find a way to incorporate her
experiences with her teaching. This prompted her to go back to university to become an English
teacher. After spending time abroad, Marina decided to go back to school, specifically to
become an English teacher. One of the main reasons, Marina returned to school to study English
was to enable her to integrate her life-changing experiences in her teaching. While living in
Uganda, Marina gained a sense of all the things Japanese people take for granted—things such as
clean drinking water, adequate supplies of basic necessities like food and shelter. Moreover,
Marina came to better understand Japanese culture and her own self. Finally, she came to
critically question gender differences prevalent in both African societies and Japanese society.
Marina also came to appreciate the importance of early childhood education, literacy and
education for all. She felt teaching English was the best way she could integrate her crosscultural experiences with teaching for global citizenship in a curriculum that is strictly adhered to.
Marina was one of the most interesting students in my composition class and oral
communication classes of 2008. In these classes she had the opportunity to reflect on her various
transcultural experiences and to share them with her classmates. In the oral communication class
she gave a moving presentation of her experience living abroad and teaching children in Uganda.
In the writing class she wrote in a journal, and she wrote a paper entitled, ―The challenges of
students: The case of Uganda‖. In her essay she writes:
Uganda is known as one of the developing countries in Africa. Life expectancy is
[only] 46 years old. The literacy rate is 72.6 % – that is 147 among 192 countries. I
stayed there for 2 years and 5 months. During my days, I asked many questions to
my colleagues and my students. I also joined programs, which enhance teaching
schools and exchanged opinions with teachers from other schools… It is important
for readers to know the education problems for developing countries…. Education
is very important to people. School is not the only place where people study but
also get wisdom or knowledge for survival. (Marina, research paper abstract,
submitted January 2008)
Marina was given the chance to reflect on her transborder experience in Uganda in various
classroom settings and ways. In the composition class, she wrote in her journal and it became a

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catalyst for her research paper. I also invited her to share her experiences through multi-media
presentations to her classmates in other classes. Marina shared a JICA video and prepared a
moving Power Point presentation with her own photos and text. She was happy to be able to
teach others about the struggles of people in Uganda and about significant lessons in gender
equity that are just as applicable to women in Japan as they are in Uganda.
Students‘ transborder experiences have the potential to change the curriculum, teaching
and learning of others (Howe & Xu, 2013; Nakamura, 2004). Travel abroad for personal and
professional growth is becoming an integral part of experience and education for an increasing
number of students in our program. However, it is not yet an official policy, and the spaces for
exchange students are rather limited. It is left up to students to make their own arrangements.
This could be improved with reforms to teacher education programs to include a component of
comparative and international education. As the Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture
(MEXT) has proposed changing the teacher education programs to a post-degree 2-year master‘s,
there could be the provision for more transcultural education (Howe, 2013). I look forward to
that prospect but it is many years if and when it becomes a reality.
Unfortunately, Marina was unable to obtain a job teaching English as she had hoped.
Marina is now a math teacher at a private high school in Tochigi. She would like to use her
extensive transcultural experiences in her teaching. However, she indicated it would be difficult
to integrate her experiences into the math curriculum but possible in homeroom class. It is her
first year to have a homeroom class. She‘s excited about this new teaching responsibility and
opportunity.
Marina is happy teaching math, however she indicated she‘d still like to teach English.
After all, that was why she went back to school in the first place. In addition to Uganda, she has
traveled to Tanzania, Rwanda and Vietnam. Marina indicated these international cross-cultural
experiences are by far the most significant critical events, shaping her personal, practical and
professional knowledge. Marina‘s experience in Uganda has had a profound affect on her
teaching philosophy. One interesting point is that Marina indicated that there is a problem with
English teachers who have a fear of talking to the foreigners including the Assistant Language
Teacher (ALT). It appears that many of the senior English teachers at this prestigious private
high school continue to do things the old way. This became evident in my conversation with
Ken, another former student who happens to be teaching with Marina.

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Ken’s Struggle Against the Status Quo
Ken was born in Chicago and lived there for 2 years before returning to Japan as a
youngster. This brief period during his formative years gave Ken an ear for English. He was
among the most promising students of his cohort. I taught him from 2006 ~ 2010 and thus
became very familiar with him. Ken had excellent English pronunciation and communication
skills. He was a natural. Ken scored nearly 100% on my listening tests in first year… almost
unheard of! Ken took a number of courses with me including communication courses in first
year, a writing course in second year and a seminar in third year. The seminar allows students to
reflect on social issues and to give a presentation on a topic relating to global citizenship
education. I recall one striking incident where Ken made a profound comment during a seminar.
After one of Ken‘s peers made a presentation on street children in the Philippines, the students
were asked, ―Has your impression of street kids changed as a result of my presentation?‖ Ken‘s
response was something like ―Thank you for your presentation. Yes, my attitude and opinion
has radically changed. I used to think street kids were someone else‘s problem, but now I see
that we as a society need to care for our children. We need to help others who are in need.
These children are on the streets for various reasons and not because they are delinquents or
misfits.‖ The general consensus among this group of students was they agreed with Ken‘s
reflection.
How the presentation changed my way of thinking
Before listening to the presentation about street children, I ―knew‖ there are street
children in the world. I ―knew‖ their hardships, I ―knew‖ we need to help them.
However, after the presentation, I found myself confused because I thought I didn‘t know
anything about street children.
My first encounter with the word ‗street children‘ was a charity drive somewhere in
Japan. They were telling that street children are living hard lives, and that we should help
them. I raised a small amount of money, and I felt I did the right thing.
Did I learn further about street children after raising money? No. Did I learn
anything about their countries? No. Did I tell this sad story in the real world to others?
No. But I felt I knew about street children.

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From this experience, I thought the presentation would give me little information
about street children. However, my expectation was totally wrong. When the
presentation started, the first impact on me was to see the pictures of street children.
Look at their neighborhood, look at their food, and look at their clothing. But the most
impressive thing was their eyes. They seemed to live positively even in such a hardship.
What about children in Japan? We live in a comfortable situation. However, 300 junior
high school and high school students commit suicide every year in Japan (announced by
the National Police Agency). Other research shows that around 10% of the high school
students in Japan experienced Para suicide (announced by PTA joint association)
I thought about what I should do when I became a teacher. I should tell students
the reality in the world. Studying is not the priority, but knowing about the world,
and if possible, doing something for the world is the top priority. My determination
to be a teacher became stronger. [Email October 9, 2013]

Since graduation in 2010, Ken has been teaching English to junior and senior high school
students at the same private high school as Marina. He enjoys his job and has survived the
critical period of the first 3 years. But his first few years were not easy. Ken recalls that there
was a huge difference between the carefree life of a student and the responsibilities of teaching.
In addition, he is now married. So, it is no exaggeration to say that Ken‘s life has changed
significantly since I knew him as a student.
Ken laments that all his senior colleagues still use grammar translation methods of teaching
English. These teachers still teach English without using it in any practical way. Most of the
English teachers at this elite private school are still embarrassed to talk with foreigners! Ken
prefers a more communicative approach but he has to be careful about what he says and does in
order not to upset his senior colleagues. Ken is among the youngest of the teachers at his school.
He is keenly aware of his place in the teaching hierarchy.
Hardships in my life as a teacher
Becoming a teacher, I experienced some difficulties in my first teacher life. Of
course many students ―get a jolt‖ after being employed. However, my one was not
temporal, but a long-running frustration. I was somewhat confident about English

Global citizenship education from across the Pacific

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pronunciation and communication skills, both of which were almost useless in high
school education. The school I attended was concentrating on grammatical explanations
and translations. Therefore, I had to learn again and again in my first year at school. My
slow lessons prevented me from teaching communicative English to students. The
textbook had so many interesting topics, but there was no time for me to talk about such
topics.
From the second year, I started to put communication activities in my lessons,
which only got negative assessments from teachers in my school. Many teachers seemed
to think that communication activities are fun, but that‘s what it‘s all about. It‘s useless
for studying. Thus, I started to talk about additional information about the topics in the
textbook. I talked about street children when we learned about Bono, a famous singer
and a benefactor. After the lesson some of the students told me how much their heart
bled. At the end, one student said, ―Today I learned something more important than
English.‖ That comment made me confused, but I was happy to hear that. [Email
October 9, 2013]
Now let‘s turn our attention to a veteran high school English teacher with a passion for teaching
GCE (see also Nakamura, 2004, 2006).
Ishimori-sensei’s Global Citizenship Education for High School Students2
Here, I describe a unique high school-based curriculum pioneered by an English teacher
and graduate student within a high school in Sendai, Japan, with a focus on global citizenship
education. This is a rare program within a highly standardized and uniform education system. In
Ishimori‘s words (Arimoto & Ishimori, 2013),
An education for global citizenship has never been more necessary, as globalization
continues to be an important determinant in many aspects of life. In a fast-changing global
and interdependent world, education for global citizenship should and can help young
people lead fruitful lives, while enabling them to develop their knowledge, skills, and
sound values needed for creating a better world. (p. 308)
2 While Marina and Ken are former students of mine based in Utsunomiya, Hiromi Ishimori is a former graduate

student of my colleague, Masahiro Arimoto at Tohoku University. She is also a co-author of a paper including some
of the data reported here (Arimoto & Ishimori, 2013).

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In 2010, the Global Citizenship (GC) elective course was offered to students in Ishimori‘s
English course of study. In this class, students learned about various global issues such as
poverty, human rights, peace and conflict, and sustainable development. The course was
designed to foster students‘ 21st century skills (critical thinking, creativity, and multiliteracies)
through student-centered activities including group discussions, participatory workshops, roleplaying, and presentations. After one year, students‘ global awareness grew drastically, and they
were enlightened as global citizens (Ishimori, 2012).
Ishimori (2012) identified three key components in her framework for GCE: 1)
teaching/learning contents; 2) teaching/learning style; and 3) intended (desired) outcomes &
assessment. Furthermore, GCE is interactive, inquisitive while building on learners‘
preconceptions. Thus, Ishimori uses a wide variety of formative assessments, including tests,
worksheets, assignments, essays/reports, presentations and portfolios as well as measures of
learning attitudes and participation. Also, interaction between the students and the teacher
(facilitator) is highly valued in this class. These are the elements of Assessment for Learning
(Arimoto & Ishimori, 2013). Students are not evaluated merely for grading. Rather, they are
encouraged to learn for their future. Multi-assessment with various approaches supports and
enhances student learning for better lives.
Students‘ reflections at the end of the GC course led Ishimori (Arimoto & Ishimori,
2013) to identify five major themes: 1) Connections between the world and the individual; 2)
Improvement of thinking skills; 3) The spirit of inquiry and interest; 4) A wide view and multiangled perspective; and 5) Self-searching, self-exploration. The following quotes from students
exemplify their learning:
I‘d like to study global issues deeply in the university, although I was not interested in
going to the university before, because the GC lesson opened my eyes. And I want many
people to know various global issues, and I will try my best to solve them. I really
appreciate this GC class.
In every lesson I could realize that my view had been broadened and that I had improved
myself.
Not knowing is a fear. I learned in this class that this is the most important subject for us,
the young generation who will make the future. If I had not taken this class, I think I

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36

would not have known this in my life.
In addition to a lot of knowledge and skills that I could acquire in the class, my biggest
achievement, I think, is a mental change in myself. My view of the world and life has
broadened. Now I understand there is a meaning in every event happening in the world,
and I‘d like to create ideas to solve the issues. I gained such a positive attitude and wide
view and a will to action.
Since there were many opportunities to express my opinions, now I am able to state my
opinions and take in others opinions as well. I gained confidence in myself.
I deepened my thinking and how I will live, through knowing the reality and the problems
the world are facing. There are a number of people who don‘t notice that humans harm
humans and destroy the earth. I was one of them. Now I do know it is very important to
know, learn and think about the issues and take action, and that‘s what we should do.
[translated from Japanese by Ishimori]
The learning attained by students is not just about knowledge acquisition but also included
various skills, attitudes and values. What‘s more, in a focus group discussion with seven
students, four months after the GC class ended, the core elements of learning remained deeply
ingrained in the students. For example, the students mentioned things like, ―Now I don‘t deny
those personalities whose values differ from my own.‖ ―I am able to see thing not only from my
personal view but also from the views of the person that I talk to, or even a third party.‖ ―It is
very enjoyable to learn and know new things now, so I buy books and learn by myself.‖ ―I have
found what I want to learn in the university.‖ ―I can connect many kinds of issues in my brain
and think them out well.‖ ―After the lesson, I feel my troubles are very small.‖ ―I‘ve got to
imagine the person‘s situation, and understand the pain.‖ ―I understand how precious it is to
learn at school, so I enjoy studying now.‖ These comments provide evidence that what they
learned in the GC class has taken root in them and has been utilized in their daily lives (Arimoto
& Ishimori, 2013).

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Conclusion
Research has consistently shown that teachers tend to teach in the same way they were
taught to as students (Britzman, 1991; Lortie, 1975; Zeichner & Gore, 1990). Traditionally, in
Japanese high schools, the curriculum has been test-driven and teachers have tended to use a
didactic, lecture-style of teaching (Arimoto & Ishimori, 2013; Rohlen, 1983). Generally, students‘
main activity in class is passively listening to the teacher. This has to change! There is hope for
the future if enough prospective teachers can experience lessons in global citizenship education
and social justice issues. A case in point, the educational philosophy and classroom teaching of
Marina and Ken reflect the lessons they participated in as students in my teacher education
courses. Moreover, Ishimori-sensei‘s GC lessons described here show very clearly what is
possible when teachers think outside the box to actively engage students in GCE. In these
transformational lessons, students are quite busy with various activities including listening,
thinking, speaking, reading, discussing, exchanging ideas or opinions, writing, and working
together in groups with their friends. Through various activities in group work or pair work in
class, students are expected to find something meaningful and notice by themselves rather than
being forced to learn something by memorizing facts or regurgitating information on a test. This
learning process involves critical thinking and a with-it-ness or kizuki (Sakamoto, 2011) as
students and teachers are actively confronting their preconceptions with different ideas and
thinking deeply about their learning.
Indeed, reflection is a major part of learning in Japan (Akiba & LeTendre, 2009; Britton,
Paine, Pimm, & Raizen, 2003; Rohlen & LeTendre, 1996; Shimahara & Sakai, 1995).
Comprehensive, ongoing professional development is integrated into the routines of teachers in
Japan and extends far beyond pre-service teacher education (Howe, 2005). It includes selftraining (teacher initiated study circles, action research and research lessons), system-wide
training, and university-based training (Padilla & Riley, 2003). A major component of selftraining is kônaikenshû (school- based professional development), which is a teacher driven,
continuous process that nearly all schools in Japan are engaged in (Stigler & Hiebert, 1999).
Teachers work in grade-level groups, in subject-matter groups and in special committees. One of
the most common features of kônaikenshû is jugyô kenkyû, widely known as lesson study
outside Japan (Perry & Lewis, 2008). While action research is characterized by individual
teachers conducting research in their own classrooms with the goal of improving teaching,

Global citizenship education from across the Pacific

kenkyû jugyô (research lessons) are a highly public activity. Research lessons are often
videotaped and may involve many teachers planning, observing and learning together.
Furthermore, research lessons are usually a significant part of the more extended lesson study
process, which is widely practiced by groups of teachers in Japanese schools. Lesson study
provides an effective means to improve instruction based on careful planning, observation,
reflection and collaboration amongst teachers (Lewis, 2002).
Thus, GCE can potentially spread through active and systemic professional development
activities of progressive teachers throughout Japan. It is hoped that the next generation of
teachers will pioneer further innovations in GCE. The teachers highlighted here show great
promise in breaking free from the status quo of curriculum, teaching and learning in Japan.
Through sharing these teacher stories from East Asian perspectives, it is a modest step to
decolonizing global citizenship education.

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