University Reform for Gender Equality in Japan

Noriko INUZUKA
COE Fellow, Gender Law and Policy Center, School of Law, Tohoku University

1. Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to analyze trends in university reforms for gender equality in

Japan. Firstly, I will begin by classifying university-based organizations for gender equality into
three types. Secondly, I will outline the national strategy on gender equality. Thirdly, I will
examine the case of Tohoku University’s gender equality programs in light of the proposed
typology, and as it relates to the current government strategy on gender equality.
This paper will investigat e the following three research questions with regard to
universities in Japan: 1) What are the key organizations for gender equality? 2) How does the
policy environment influence gender equality? 3) How do organizations for gender equality
work?
I have utilized the work of Willinger (2002) in developing this study to u se the typology
of university women’s centers. Here, W illinger provides a starting point by classifying two types
of “ women’s centers” on university campuses in the USA: “ women’s resource center s” and

“ women’s research center s”. She created this model based largely upon three different features:
mission, services and stakeholders (W illinger 2002 : 48 -49, 505-506). I took up her challenge to

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develop another typology of organizations for gender equality that is focused specifically upon
the case of Japan. This paper classifies university organizations for gender equality into three
types : (1) education and research centers, (2) gender empowerment centers , and (3) steering
committees for gender equality and/or gender equality offices. Type 1 and Type 2 correspond
quite closely to W illinger’s women’s research centers and women’s resource centers.

In this typology, I will examine the case of Tohoku University’s gender equality
programs as they relate to the current government policy environment. Tohoku University was
founded in 1907 as the third “ imperial” university, and is also known as the first university in
Japan to admit female students. In 1913, three women were admitted to the School of Science in
spite of objections from the M inistry of Education. Tohoku University has since become one of
the largest universities in Japan, with 10 undergraduate schools, 15 graduate schools, five
research institutes and three specialized graduate schools.

2. Organizations for Gender Equality within Universities
Table 1 is my classification of gender equality organizations located in universities in

Japan. Types 1 and 2 are quite similar to W illinger’s work. Type 3 , committees/offices for
gender equality , have recently been introduced to certain universities in Japan (specifically,
Nagoya University and Tohoku University).
The mission of the Type 3 organizations consists of management to promote policy
development and evaluate gender equality. Constituents include all members of the university, as
well as prospective students and staff. The work and programs of these organizations are policyoriented, and they establish links both inside and outside of the university. One of the important

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tasks of the committees/offices for gender equality consists of organizing gender-based statistics
and analysis with regard to the overall activities of the university.
The function s of the committees/offices for gender equality are also similar to those of
organizations in North America that are working toward equality, human rights and harassment
prevention. The word “ diversity” has recently beco me an increasingly popular concept through
which to incorporate such concepts, and there exists a vast array of names and organizational
structures in this regard. For example, in the United States there is the Chancellor’s Advisory
Group on Diversity at the University of California , and the Equal Opportunity Office at the
University of Virginia. In Canada, there is the Committee of the Status of Women

at the

University of Toronto, and the Equity Office at the University of British Colombia.

Table 1: Organizations for Gender Equality at Universities in Japan

Type 1
Gender

Research

Center

Type 2

Type 3

Gender

Committee

Empowerment Center

Gender
Office

for
Equality/

of

Gender

Equality

Mission

Scholarship

Service

(provide

Management

(produce / promote activities to empower (promote

Constituents

knowledge related to

women

gender)

minorities)

gender equality)

Students, staff, women

All member s of the

in

community,

university,

special interest groups

prospective

Students,

faculty,

scholars

and

professionals

the

and

gender

policy

development/ evaluate

students

and staff
Programs

3

Academic (advance

Issue -oriented (feature

Policy-oriented

understanding;

women of achievement,

(establish

enhance

gender minorities)

inside and outside the

research

and teaching)
Instruction

linkages

university)

Formalized courses,

Noncredit

courses

Organize

gender-

academic programs

(emphasizing self-help)

sensitivity

trainings

for faculty and staff
Counseling

Academic advising,

Individual and/or group

Advise the President

referrals

counseling

(sexual and

harassment,

health,

administrators

domestic

violence,

gender issues

sexual

orientation,

other

senior
on

career planning, etc.)
Research

Conduct

academic

Survey of Center Users

Gender-based

research projects on

statistics

gender issues

analysis

for

government

and

and

staff

community
Publication s

Research-based
journals,

reports,

bibliographies

Newsletters
announcing

services

and programs

Annual

reports,

gender

equality

policy,

harassment

policy and guideline s
Library-related

Book s,

periodicals

Materials

activities

and/or

primary

gender

addressing Preservation
issues

source materials to

personal

sustain graduate and

professional growth

and

documents related to

and

gender issues; gender-

faculty research
Partnership s

based

statistics

Community, advocacy

Equity-focused

field

gender

groups,

offices,

research

volunteers

studies,
networks

professionals,

outside

institutions that work
on

gender

national

4

in

university archives

Researchers in the
of

of

and

issues,
local

government, business
communities

Willinger “Women’s Centers, Their M issions, and the Process” ,2002, pp.505-506. Inuzuka,

“ Kanada no Koukyouseisaku to Daigaku no Kanriunei : Koyou no Kouheisei ni taisuru
Konpuraiansu Hyoukaseido”, 2006, pp.230-231.

3. National Policy Environment for Gender Equality in Japan
The most important policy drive for gender equality in Japan has been the enactment of
the Basic Law for Gender -Equal Society in 1999. Article 8 (Responsibility of the State) provides
that “the State is responsible for the comprehensive formation of a Gender -Equal Society
(including positive action) pursuant to the basic principles of formation of a Gender-Equal
Society prescribed in Article 3 to 7.” Article 10 (Responsibility of Citizens) states that “Citizens
shall make efforts to contribute to the formation of a Gender- Equal Society in all areas of society,
including workplaces, schools, the local community and the home, pursuant to the basic
principles.”
Following the Basic Law, the Plan for Gender Equality was established at the
headquarters for the Promotion on Gender Equality in 2000. The Plan carries 11 priority
objectives. The objective of Priority 5, for example, is to “support the efforts of women and men
to harmonize work with their family.” It is confirmed that the workplace must establish “family
friendly ” environments for workers. The objective of Priority 10 is to “ enrich education and
learning to promote gender equality and facilitate diversity of choice .” It articulates that the
promotion of gender equality in institutions of higher learning, as well as the enhancement of
career/employment guidance, are significant because of the gender gap existing within higher

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education and with regard to career choices ( Gender Equality Bureau, Cabinet Office 2001 :
103-111).
On the other hand, there has been a very significant change in the area of national higher
education policy. In 2002, the Policy for the Structural Reform of Universities was enhanced to
introduce the principle of competition with a view to further accelerating the flow of reform so
that universities in Japan could become even more vigorous and internationally competitive than
in the past. The 21st Century Center s of Excellence program (COE) is one of the significant

projects related to this national policy.
In FY2002 and FY2003, 85 universities and 246 centers were approved as COE programs
in ten of the total number of academic fields through the board of review of the Japan Society for
the Promotion of Science . In 2003, there were two successful applications concerning “ gender
studies ,” of which one was Ochanomizu University’s “Frontiers of Gender Studies.”
Ochanomizu University began as Tokyo Women's Normal School in 1875, and developed since

then as one of Japan’ s two national women’s universities. The other COE program on gender
studies is Tohoku University School of Law’ s “Gender, Law and Policy Center. ”.
We can see another policy environment of gender and higher education in the report of
the “conference to support the diversification of careers for women, ” which was held by the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Science and Sports (MEXT 2000) . Based on this report ’s
recommendations, MEXT encourages universities and research institutions to set out relevant
frameworks and action plans for gender equality, as well as to specify targets for hiring and
appointing female researchers to higher positions. Based on this trend, MEXT started another

new program in 2006, “ pilot programs to support female researchers,” through competitive
project funding (20-50 million yen per year for one project, up to 6 years) (Yamanoi 2005: 81).

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This program is provided through the same competitive procedures as the 21st Century COE
Program on research, and the Good Practice Program (GP) on teaching and supporting students.
36 universities applied in 2006, and 10 were approved. Seven are the programs of national
university corporations (the former national universities) (Table 2).

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Table 2 Pilot Programs to Support Female Researchers (2006)
Applied Project

University Name

Co-

Public/

education/

Private

Single
Sex

Education

Tokyo

Women’s

Medical Support Center for Female Medical Scientists

Women

Private

University
Kumamoto University

Career path program with community partnerships*

Co -ed

Public

Kyoto University

Comprehensive

Co -ed

Public

Co -ed

Public

support

program

for

female

researchers*
Tokyo

University

of Empowerment program for female scientists*

Agriculture and Technology
Japan Women’s University

Multi-career program for female researchers*

Private

Tohoku University

Mori-no-miyako female scientist hurdling support

Co -ed

Public

project
W aseda University

Gender equality plan for training of researchers*

Co -ed

Private

Nara Women’s University

Lifetime career support system for female researchers*

Women

Public

Ochanomizu University

Employment

Women

Public

Co -ed

Public

environment

reform

for

female

researchers*
Hokkaido University

Structure of model recruitment conditions and plan for

women researchers
MEXT, http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/jinzai/koubo/06060127/002/001.htm
* translated by Noriko Inuzuka

4. A Case Study of Organizations for Gender Equality in Universities : Tohoku University
This section examine s the case of Tohoku Univers ity’s gender equality programs by
typology, and as it relates to the current government strategy on gender equality. Firstly, Tohoku

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University founded the Type 1 institution, a gender research center, in 2003. The university ’s
School of Law applied for a “gender, law and policy center” project through MEXT’s 21st
Century Centers of Excellence program (COE). The project consisted of about 20 professors,
and was enhanced by top-rung management leaders. Receiving about 10 0 million yen in aid
grants- per year from M EXT, the center houses ten researchers and also rents space for research
activities outside campus.
The center focuses on legal and political scientific research into theoretical problems
related to the 21st century gender-equal societies that are being promoted in Japan and elsewhere
in the world. It aims to establish a new field of gender law and policy studies, and to produce
gender-sensitive researchers, lawyers, and policy professionals. It also encourages applied
research in policy implementations by keeping a close connection with local governments and
bar associations, as well as by organizing several research clusters related to the following areas:
(1) political participation, (2) employment, (3) family, (4) physical liberty, (5) human security,

and (6) gender and education.
The undergraduate course titled “ Gender and Human Society,” which is taught by the
professors and fellows of the COE program , drew over 2 50 students in 2006. While gender
studies have gradually been receiving higher status in the university, grants-in-aid last only for 5
years. It seems very difficult, therefore, to be able to continue the project in the same way
without government funding.
Secondly, concerning Type 2 organizations, Tohoku University has neither any gender
empowerment centers nor diversity office s—a developmental delay that is due to the weakness
of “ bottom-up ” movements in the university. Students do not attempt to protest in order to
transform the university culture, and faculty and staff are not accustomed to create networks in

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order to make their work condition s and personal lives better. Gradually, however, the situation
is changing. The “working group for the balancing of work and family” of the Committee of
Gender Equality at Tohoku University started a project to establish nursing schools on campus in

2001. After four year s of efforts, the committee was able to open one nursing school (Tohoku
University 2005 :6). Efforts for gender equality and the improvement of research and labor

environments are hence continuing. The university decided that there was a need to offer more
help to female researchers, for example, and therefore initiated the “Mori-no-miyako female
scientists hurdling support project." The university applied this to the “Pilot Programs to

Support Female Researchers” of MEXT , and was successful in 2006 .
This project includes the following: (1) child care and health care support programs , such
as a part-time work system and the hiring of research/education support workers; (2)
environmental improvement programs enriching the work environment and nurseries for sick
children; (3) promotion/enrichment programs for the next generation, including the “ Science
Angel” project where students hold seminars at high schools; and (4) the establishment of female
student networks and female researchers.
Thirdly, concerning Type 3 ( steering committee s of gender equality), Tohoku University
is aiming to become a leading organization in this regard along with Nagoya University. Table 3

recounts a chronology of the activities for gender equality committees in Japan’s universities.

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Table 3. Activities of Gender Equality Committees in Japan’s Universities

(1999, May）

Yamaguchi University : Establishment of ” Equal Partnership Committee ”

(2000, September) Nagoya University : Establishment of “ Study Committee of Gender Equality”
(2001, March)

Board of Trustees of Nagoya University: “ Recommendations for Promotion

of Gender Equality in Nagoya University”
(2001, April)

Tohoku University : Establishment of “ Committee of Gender Equality”

(2002, March)

Equal Partnership Committee, Yamaguchi University : “ Recommendation

for Promotion of Gender Equality in Yamaguchi University”
Tohoku University: “Proposals to Enhance Policy for Gender Equality in

(2002, April)
Tohoku University”
(2003,January)

Nagoya University: Establishment of the “ Office of Gender Equality”

(2003,December) Tokyo University: “ Proclamation of Gender Equality at Tokyo University”
(2005,April )

Kyushu University : “Proposal Document for Promotion of Gender Equality

in Kyushu”

The Japan Association of National Universities served as a backdrop to the development
of steering committee s for gender equality (Danjo-kyoudou- sankaku iinkai) at some universities.
This organization established the “ Working Group for Promotion of Gender Equality,” for
example, and also compiled a report entitled “Toward Realization of Gender Equality at
National Universities” on May 19, 2000 (Japanese Association National Universities 2000). The

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report suggests that universities declare basic principles and policies both on and off campus, and
also take practical steps towards the realization of gender equality. The general assembly of the
Japan Association of National Universities that was held on June 14, 2000 proposed that the
ratio of women faculty members at national universities be tripled to 20% by the year 2010.
Concurrently, with the reorganization of Japan’s ministries and agencies in January 2001,
the national government established the “Gender Equal Committee ” to survey and monitor the

extent to which various related policies have actually been implemented. Given these policy
trends, some universities have decided to establish “Gender Equality (Study ) Committee s” in

order to extensively discuss measures to promote gender equality within the university.
Tohoku University established a “Committee of Gender Equality” in 2001 aimed at
conducting survey s, public relations, gender-sensitive education and the creation of consultation
services. It distributed a questionnaire survey to all staff on gender equality, and in 2002 it
released “Proposals to Enhancement Policy for Gender Equality in Tohoku University” and the

“ Tohoku University Declaration of Promotion for Gender Equality. ” In 2003, it created the
“ Sawayanagi Awards” (Gender Equality Awards), which is a competitive funding source for
research, activities and projects at Tohoku University. Every year, the committee holds an annual
symposium on gender equality (Tohoku University 2005: 2). In 2006, it approved the “ Appeal
for Enhancing Gender Equality and Establishing the Network in Universities” with the

participants of the Fourth Gender Equality Symposium of Tohoku University, as well as the staff
of Akita University, Yamaguchi University, Nagoya University, Hitotsubashi University and
Waseda University ( Gender Law and Policy Center 2006: 2 ).

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5.Conclusion
National policy and its approach toward gender equality has had certain effects on former
national universities in Japan . In particular,

influence s have been seen in research -centered

universities with regard to competitive project funding. Steering committees for gender equality

(“ Danjo-kyodo-sankaku” ) have been developing mainly in former national universities. The
establishment of such committees has been useful for the promotion of gender equality in

Japan’s universities, which are said to have a “top-down” organizational culture. The most
important work of these committee s is to collaborate with various institutions within universities.
The delay of the development of Type 2 facilities are partly because of weaknesses in grassroots
movements and in the activities of students and staff in Japan’s universities during recent times.
This slows down progress, thereby impeding the ability to catch up with the opportunities of
national policies.
I would like to ask, however: is the lack of “ bottom- up” movement s only seen with
regard to the case of gender equality issues in Japan’s universities ?

References
Davie, Sharon L. (ed.) (2002) University and College Women’s Centers : A Journey Toward

Equity, Greenwood Press.
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National Printing Bureau of M inistry of Finance.
Gender Law and Policy Center, Tohoku University (2006) Newsletter No.10.

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[=“ The Report of the Conference to Support Diversification of

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