The History of Special Education for Children with Differing Abilities
in the Kamloops Region 1800–2021
Dr. Kim Calder Stegemann
Professor Emerita, TRU
Ph.D., M.Sc., M.A., B.Ed.

Mary Ellen Patterson
Retired Teacher of
Students with Special
Needs

Marney Bethell
President KTRTA,
Retired Teacher

Lena Stengel
Elementary Teacher
B.Ed.

Marilyn McLean
Retired Assistant
Superintendent,
School District #73

Dr. Nan Stevens
Retired Professor, TRU
Ed.D., M.Ed., B.Ed., BPE

KIM CALDER STEGEMANN AND MARNEY BETHELL

Sheila Park
Past President KTRTA,
Retired Teacher

THE JOURNEY FROM INSTITUTION TO INCLUSION

The Journey from Institution to Inclusion:

The Journey from
Institution to Inclusion
The History of Special Education for Children
with Differing Abilities in the Kamloops-Thompson Region
1800–2021

Stuart Wood School, Kamloops, 1800’s

Kim Calder Stegemann and Marney Bethell (Eds.)
with the History of Special Education in Kamloops-Tompson
Committee: Marilyn McLean, Sheila Park, Mary Ellen Patterson,
Lena Stengel, and Nan Stevens

The Journey from
Institution to Inclusion

The History of Special Education for Children
with Differing Abilities in the Kamloops-Thompson Region
1800–2021

The Journey from
Institution to Inclusion
The History of Special Education for Children
with Differing Abilities in the Kamloops-Thompson Region
1800–2021

Kim Calder Stegemann and Marney Bethell (Eds.)
with the History of Special Education in Kamloops-Tompson
Committee: Marilyn McLean, Sheila Park, Mary Ellen Patterson,
Lena Stengel, and Nan Stevens

Copyright © “Te History of Special Education in Kamloops-Tompson
Committee—SPED Committee” 2021.
The Journey from Institution to Inclusion by authors of the History of
Special Education in Kamloops-Thompson Committee - SPED
Committee is licensed under a Creative Commons AttributionNonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, except where
otherwise noted.

Editors: Calder Stegemann, Kim & Bethell, Marney
ISBN 978-1-7778065-0-7 (print)
ISBN 978-1-7778065-1-4 (digital - pdf)
The Journey “From Institution to Inclusion: The History of
Education for Children of Differing Abilities in the KamloopsThompson Region 1800–2021”
Published by the SPED Committee: Kim Calder Stegemann and
Marney Bethell (Eds.), with Marilyn McLean, Sheila Park, Mary Ellen
Patterson, Lena Stengel, Nan Stevens, and the Kamloops-Thompson
Retired Teachers Association.
Printed by Thompson Rivers University, Print Department
805 TRU Way, Kamloops, B. C. V0C 0C8
Contact:
Kim Calder Stegemann, kcalder@tru.ca
Marney Bethell, marneybethell@gmail.com
First printing: October 2021

Acknowledgements

T

he authors and editors of this book wish to acknowledge that the Kamloops-Thompson School District and region is located within the unceded
and traditional lands of the Tk’emlúps te Secwépemc within Secwépemc’ulucw,
the traditional and unceded territory of the Secwépemc people.
We endeavoured to have an Indigenous voice in our text, however, despite many efforts to i nclude t he wisdom and experience of
Secwépemc elders, and Indigenous leaders and educators, we were
unsuccessful for a variety of reasons. Their story needs to be told, and
we remain hopeful that the Tk’emlúps te Secwépemc community will
provide an account of education, and special education, for the various
historical timeframes. We are grateful for the contributions of Mr. Mike
Bowden, District Principal of Aboriginal Education in School District
#73, who has outlined some of the challenges of tracking special education of Indigenous students across different historical periods.
The authors and editors also wish to express gratitude to those students,
parents, educators, and administrators who provided valuable historical
information and insight about special education in the Kamloops-Thompson
School District (24 and 73) and regional area. In some cases, we have used
direct quotations, and these are cited within the chapter text. Every contributor, whether quoted directly or not, is listed at the end of each chapter. We are
also grateful for the support and encouragement to complete this book from
the Kamloops-Thompson School District and Thompson Rivers University.
Finally, this text would not have been possible without financial assistance. The authors and editors wish to thank the following for the funding
provided: B. C. Retired Teachers’ Association (BCRTA) Heritage Committee,
B. C. Interior Community Foundation, Thompson Rivers University
(Undergraduate Research Education Assistance Program—UREAP), the
Community Driven Research Fund (CDRF). Lena Stengel, a TRU School of
Education graduate, was hired as a Research Assistant, and is a contributing
author for this book. She received UREAP support to research historical documents and conduct interviews.
Acknowledgements

v

Indigenous Perspective on Special Education History
Mike Bowden
Finding historical data that tells the story of the special education
of Indigenous students in the public education system is challenging.
Disaggregating information and data specifc to the historical Indigenous context, specifcally the local context, was not part of the practice. Disaggregating
data would have run counter to the “melting pot” public education system
(Hirschman, 1983; Gradstein & Justman, 2001). Calderon-Berumen (2019)
suggests that one of the purposes of the public education system in North
America was to assimilate, and in doing so, ignore cultures which were not
aligned with the dominant culture
Te transition to disaggregating data in special education did not begin
until the shif to inclusion practices in British Columbia. Even then, it was
only in the 1990s that the School Act was revised to desegregate and entitle all
students to a full-education program in their neighbourhood school (Siegel
& Ladyman, 2000). Te main discussion at this time was the interpretation of
inclusion and integration policies regarding the medical model of diagnosis,
which was based on symptoms and labels. What was absent was an examination on how inclusion and integration in special education impacted marginalized and vulnerable populations, like Indigenous students.
In 2009, the B. C. Ministry of Education adjusted their general position
on inclusion and issued a policy on Alternative Education programs. Tey
acknowledged that, if a student’s needs were not being met in a traditional
school program, then a specialized, segregated program is justifed.
Arguably, the diference between special education and alternate education is that special education is specifc to the medical model of diagnosis
(Katz & Lamoureux, 2018). However, students with diverse abilities (special
education) are still overrepresented in alternative education programs. Te
education system also ignores mental health as a legitimate consideration
for inclusive and integrated educational supports, continuing to segregate
students who fall into this category. Tis has implications for Indigenous
students, as they are overrepresented in segregated, alternative programs,
as outlined within the Alternative Education Guidelines (B. C. Ministry of
Education, 2009).

VI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Tis categorizing educational programming and the current interpretation of inclusion ignores Indigenous perspectives and voices around holistic
approaches to complex diversities and learning. Instead, it focuses on a western “melting pot” view and limits historical data and discourse about what is
to be archived and recorded.
In 2005, the B. C. government publicly recognized and committed to
closing the education outcome gaps between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal
students by 2015. Part of this initiative was to begin disaggregating Indigenous
data on school completion, not specifcally special education. By paying attention to historical data on school completion, we could create a narrative on the
experiences of Indigenous students in special education. However, there is evidence that schools and districts may have manipulated data to increase graduation completion results by overusing the practice of awarding Evergreen
Certifcates to Indigenous students (Narine, 2016).
Te provincial government created the Evergreen Certifcate to celebrate success and Grade 12 completion in learning that is not recognized in
a certifcate of graduation (Dogwood Diploma). Te Evergreen Certifcate is
not a graduation credential; students who receive an Evergreen Certifcate
have not graduated.
In 2015, 1 in 7 Aboriginal Grade 12 students in B. C. received an
Evergreen Certifcate, instead of a Dogwood Diploma, compared to 1 in 67
non-Aboriginal students (Narine, 2016). Unfortunately, the school completion
data includes Evergreen Certifcates. Although the government began disaggregating data on Indigenous students in 2005, this data skewed the narrative
of Indigenous outcomes. Te First Nations Education Steering Committee in
British Columbia accused public education of streamlining Indigenous students into the Evergreen Certifcate track without the required formal individual education plans (IEP) (Narine, 2016).
In 2015, the Auditor General of British Columbia released an audit of the
Education of Aboriginal students in the B. C. public school system (Bellringer,
2015). At the time, Indigenous students graduated at a rate of 62%, compared
to 87% for non-Aboriginal students. Te report concluded that the government did a limited analysis of the wide range of student outcome data that it
monitored, and therefore could not adequately understand trends and outcomes for Indigenous students that could inform change.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

VII

Tese results are not unique to
the Kamloops-Tompson School
District. Although the district noted
increases in the graduation rates of
Indigenous students, from 76% in
2015 to almost 80% in 2020, it is still
not at parity with non-Indigenous
students. Te special education data
also refects these disparities and
inequities. In 2020, 56% of students
in alternate education programs in
the Kamloops-Tompson school
district were Indigenous, despite
only representing 19% of the student
population. In 2015, 58% of students
Darwin Bethell Kamloops School in alternate programs were
of the Arts Graduate at his
Indigenous.
Native Graduation Ceremony
Without clear, written records,
data, or discourse around the nar2021 with Wendy Leonard,
Aboriginal Education Worker SD rative of the special education of
Indigenous students, it is difcult to
73 (Bethell, 2021)
create a historical perspective. One
can extrapolate based on the histories of public education and the general
experiences of Indigenous peoples in the education system to piece together a
narrative on the Indigenous special education experience. Even in the last two
decades, the data would indicate that the system struggles with meeting the
needs of Indigenous students, particularly in those in special education. If one
believes that the public system has made progress for Indigenous students,
then the history of special education for Indigenous students is bleak.
More work must be done in examining historical records with a critical
lens around Indigenous experiences. Tis includes looking at historical evidence based on Indigenous research methodologies and epistemology.
Mike Bowden,
District Principal, Aboriginal Education,
School District 73, Kamloops, B. C.
VIII

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

References
Bellringer, C. (2015). An audit of the education of Aboriginal students in the B. C. public
school system. Auditor General of British Columbia. https://www.bcauditor.
com/sites/default/fles/publications/reports/OAGBC%20Aboriginal%20Education%20Report_FINAL.pdf
Bethell, M. (2021). Aboriginal graduation ceremony, June 2021 [Colour Photograph].
Personal collection, Kamloops, B. C.
B. C. Ministry of Education. (2009). Alternate education program. Government of British Columbia. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/education-training/k-12/
administration/legislation-policy/public-schools/alternate-education-program
Calderon-Berumen, F. (2019). Resisting assimilation to the melting pot: Validating
the cultural curriculum of the home. Journal of Culture and Values in Education,
2(1), 81–95. https://cultureandvalues.org/index.php/JCV/article/view/25/18
Gradstein, M., & Justman, M. (2001, August 30). Public education and the melting
pot. SSRN. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=281519
Hirschman, C. (1983). America’s melting pot reconsidered. Annual Review of Sociology, 9, 397–423.
Katz, J., & Lamoureux, K. (2018). Ensouling our schools: A universal design framework
for mental health, well-being, and reconciliation. Portage and Main Press.
Narine, S. (2016). Evergreens the result of systemic low expectations for Aboriginal
student success. Windspeaker, 33(12). https://ammsa.com/publications/windspeaker/evergreens-result-systemic-low-expectations-aboriginal-student-success
Siegel, L., & Ladyman, S. (2000). A review of special education in British Columbia. B.
C. Ministry of Education. http://www.featbc.org/downloads/review.pdf

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

IX

Preface
Terrence S. Sullivan

I

n January 1952, my brother Dan was born, and our family was never the
same. My mom wasn’t allowed to see him until two days afer his birth.
Initially, she was told she couldn’t see him because he was a mongoloid. When
she asked what that meant, she was told that he was Down Syndromed and
was mentally retarded. As she was waiting to see him, she was urged to sign a
set of papers. Her signature would mean that she wouldn’t see Dan and that he
would be sent to live in an institution. My mother and father, with the support
of their families, decided that Dan would grow up with his brothers and sisters
instead. Tat decision came with a lifetime commitment from my mother to
gain access to the public education system for children like Dan.
Tis book is an important contribution to the record of the struggle for
the acceptance of children with special needs in the public school system. Te
School District #73 experience is also a tribute to those whose commitments
brought us to where we are today. Dr. Kim Calder Stegemann’s introductory
chapter traces the evolution of services for special needs students nationally,
provincially, and locally, and how the School District #73 education community helped lead that progress. Her trajectory of services starts with the B. C.
Insane Asylums Act that supported the institutionalization of “lunatics.” Ten,
it travels through the 20th century and the B. C. Public School Act amendments that allowed school districts to operate separate classes for the “moderately handicapped.” Finally, it ends with the movement for inclusion, illustrating how far we have come.
In Chapter 2, Lena Stengel and Sheila Park explore the Foundation
period of 1812 to 1950. Tis period saw the remaining colonies of British
North America evolve into the Canadian Confederation. Tis is when the
government began taking responsibility for children who had diferentiated
social, medical, psychological, or educational needs. Tese children were frst
PREFACE

XI

grouped under the medical model, which then evolved into separate residential facilities that were ofen remote. Tis period is marked by the founding of
the Indian Residential School system, the proliferation of one-room schoolhouses across the province, and the frst public and private schools in British
Columbia. Tere was also some recognition for students with mild special
educational needs in the education system.
In Chapter 3, Marney Bethell, Sheila Park, and Mary Ellen Patterson
describe the deinstitutionalization of children with special needs and the
emergence of Special Education as a discipline. Between 1950 and 1969, community advocates, parental advocacy, and changes in legislation and societal
norms came together in the greater Kamloops community to recognize the
need to provide educational opportunities for children with special needs.
Individual eforts from parents and community service organizations lead to
the establishment of the frst school for children with cognitive and physical
disabilities. Tis period also marked the establishment of special classes in
schools for the moderately cognitive delayed or slow learners, and the end of
operations for the Kamloops Indian Residential School.
In Chapter 4, Marilyn McLean describes the cultural shif in the education community regarding the education of children with special needs.
Te provincial government didn’t provide the funds necessary to implement
the change from segregated programs to the legislated model of integration.
Tis led School District #73 to fnd additional funds to support the provincial model. Te integration model produced several creative approaches at
the school and system level to meet the needs of students with special needs.
It was also noted that these students didn’t all have the same needs. In this
period, there was an increasing recognition that a diferentiated approach was
essential, and that Aboriginal education funding needed to be designated in a
category separate from special education funding.
In Chapter 5, Dr. Kim Calder Stegemann provides an overview of the
movement to inclusion from the year 2000 to the present. Universal Design
for Learning (UDL) and Response for Intervention (RTI) represent a new
paradigm for the education of students with special needs. Tese approaches
place additional responsibilities on classroom teachers to adapt curriculum
delivery so that all students have access to the core curriculum. Te challenges that were presented to classroom teachers resurfaced with this new
perspective. Te Supreme Court of Canada’s 2017 decision on class size and
XII

PREFACE

composition resulted in decreased class sizes across the province and a limit
to the number of children with special needs in each classroom. Tis decision, along with its many benefts, presented increased challenges for inclusion and the need to provide programs and curriculum delivery that meet the
best interests of each child.
In Chapter 6, Dr. Nan Stevens presents the important question, “Is Full
Inclusion Working?” Te answer seems mixed. It works for some students, but
only if they can choose the approach that best meets their needs. Some students might beneft from specialized pull-out or separate programs. Universal
Design for Learning would need to incorporate opportunities for choice
within that approach. Te latest approach to the education of students with
exceptionalities, the Neurodiversity Movement, would also need to include
the opportunity for choice. UDL, combined with honouring neurodiversity
and the opportunity for choice, presents the next positive approach for the
education of students with exceptionalities.
Te historical perspectives, insightful observations, and informed
visions presented in this book provide an important compendium of ideas
and perspectives on the education of students with exceptionalities in School
District #73. It also underlines the leadership and contributions of the parents, teachers, community members, and education administrators who led
the way in serving the educational needs of so many students. I know that my
mother would have read this book with pride knowing that so many others
in Kamloops shared her experience in moving the system forward for students with special needs. I can’t help but wonder what a diference our present
approach would have meant for my brother Dan.
Terrence S. Sullivan, Ph. D.
Superintendent (Retired)
School District #73
Kamloops/Tompson

PREFACE

XIII

Contents
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Chapter 1 . An Introduction to Special Education in the

Kamloops-Tompson School District and Region

1

Kim Calder Stegemann
Chapter 2 . Te Foundational Period (1812–1950) . . . . . . . . . 9
Lena Stengel and Sheila Park
Chapter 3 . Te Emergence of Special Education as a Discipline

(1950–1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Marney Bethell, Sheila Park, and Mary Ellen Patterson

Chapter 4 . Solidarity in Special Education: Advocacy, Rights,

and Reform
(1970–2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Marilyn McLean

Chapter 5 . Te Full Inclusion Movement: One Size Fits All

(2000–present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Kim Calder Stegemann

Chapter 6 . Is Full Inclusion Working? Te Need for a

Continuum of Educational Choice . . . . . . . . . . .75
Nan Stevens

CONTENTS

XV

Ch a p t e r 1

An Introduction to Special
Education in the
Kamloops-Thompson School
District and Region
Kim Calder Stegemann

Kamloops-Tompson School District Board Ofce (Bethell, 2021)

CHPT. 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE KAMLOOPS-THOMPSON SCHOOL DISTRICT AND REGION

1

Timeline 1831–1890
1831
Schools for the
blind and deaf
open in Quebec.

1867
1873
1873–1950
1878
1878–1982
Canadian
B.C. Insane
Children with
Provincial Lunatic Residential
Confederation. The Asylums Act
special needs fall Asylum established institutions for
railway unites the supporting the
under the B. C.
(later named
the “Mentally
country. Education institutionalization Mental Health Act. Woodlands School) Retarded”
and health care
of “lunatics.”
Medical Model
become provincial
dominates
responsibility.
1874
Cache Creek
Provincial
Boarding School
opens.

1880
1885
St. Ann’s
The first public
Academy opens in school is built in
Kamloops.
Rayleigh.

1886
The Kamloops
School opens on
First Avenue.

1890
The Kamloops
Residential School
opens.

Foundational

T

he provision of unique or specialized instruction, materials, and services
for children who struggle with learning or regulating their behaviour is
not a long one; however, it has evolved signifcantly as societal perceptions of
ability/disability have changed. Tis book chronicles the development of special education in the Kamloops-Tompson School District and region from
the early 1800s to the present, through fve main periods— Foundational,
Emergence, Solidarity, Full Inclusion (Hutchinson, 2016), and Choice. As
you will see, the district has been a leader in the province by ofering a range
of programming options for children and youth, particularly during the last
three phases of special education (Solidarity, Full Inclusion, and Choice). As
Bob Cowden stated, the Kamloops-Tompson School District has been a
“lighthouse district in the province of British Columbia and special education
was no exception to that” (personal communication, March 20, 2020).

Beliefs About Disability
Historically, individuals with disabilities were regarded in a vastly diferent way than they are today. Most who were born with signifcant health or
learning challenges simply did not survive. If they did survive early childhood,
families would hide their presence, feeling shame or remorse for the one who
was “diferent.”
Over the years, society has chosen other ways to “deal” with these diferences. Te timeline above highlights some of the key phases of special education, from institutionalization to a pride or ownership of one’s disability
2

CHPT. 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE KAMLOOPS-THOMPSON SCHOOL DISTRICT AND REGION

Timeline 1893–1958
1914–1918
World War I

1893
Second public
school opens at
3 Avenue and St.
Paul Street, later
expanded and
renamed Stuart
Wood Elementary
School in 1907.

1907
First high school in
Kamloops situated
in the attic of
the Stuart Wood
building.
King Edward
Sanitorium opens
(later named
Tranquille TB
Sanitorium).
Foundational

1913
New high school
built in Kamloops
at 6 Avenue and
St. Paul Street.
Later renamed Allan
Matthews.

1920
Training of
teachers of the
deaf and blind.
1915–1922
Mount Pleasant
School in
Vancouver
educates deaf
children.

1939–1945
World War II

1950s
TV exposes more
people to social
issues and raises
awareness.
Parental
associations
emerge.
Normalization
movement.
1947
1950s
School District
Kamloops
No. 24 established, experiences a
which included
teacher shortage.
the KamloopsMany new schools
Thompson area, opened.
plus Barrière and
Chase.

1950s
B. C. Public School
Act amended
to allow school
districts to
operate separate
classes for the
“moderately
handicapped.”

1955
B. C. parent group
established, later
known as the B. C.
Association of
Community Living.

1955
Pleasant Street
School for
the mentally
retarded began
construction.

1958
Tranquille
Tuberculosis
Sanitorium closed.

Emergence

(Neurodiversity Movement). Tese shifs in perception were the result of
parent concerns and advocacy, the development of specifc teacher training
programs, international declarations, and legislation that enshrined the rights
of those with diverse physical, cognitive, and emotional abilities. You will also
see on the timeline, international, national, and provincial key events and
developments (top row), as well as those specifc to the Kamloops-Tompson
School District and region (bottom row).
Tankfully, students who have unique learning or emotional needs are
no longer shunned. School District #73 (SD73) has been a leader in providing
quality education for students with diverse needs, most recently taking a tempered approach to the Full Inclusion Movement (FIM) which has swept the
globe. Beliefs about the value of special education services have become polarized, with some believing that full inclusion means that every child belongs in
the general education classroom, period, and that special education services
should no longer be a separate discipline. Instinctively, many parents and educators have pushed back on this notion, instead opting for more variety in
schooling options, based on the unique needs of their children. Te PersonCentred Movement has given impetus for those in diferent disabled communities to take control of their educational needs/services. Self-determination
has challenged the medical model which has pervaded our education systems.
CHPT. 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE KAMLOOPS-THOMPSON SCHOOL DISTRICT AND REGION

3

Timeline 1959–1980
1963
Canadian
Association for
Children with
Learning Disabilities
established.
B. C. moves
from a custodial
to a training
(normalization
model).

1959
Tranquille becomes
the Residential
Institutionfor the
Mentally Deficient.
Some Woodlands
residents transfer
to Tranquille.
Emergence

1965
Fitzwater School
for the Retarded
isopened in
Kamloops.

1975
United Nations
Declaration of the
Rights of Disabled
Persons. P. L. 94142—US Public
law guaranteeing
free, appropriate
education for
handicapped
children. Cascade
model of service
delivery.
Mainstreaming.
1970s
1975
1967
Stsmemelt Village Arthur Hatton
Central Interior
Neurological
built on Tranquille School opens
Association
property to provide satellite classroom
established in
a group home,
for Fitzwater
Kamloops . . .
independent living School Trainable
later became the experience.
Mentally Retarded
Child Development
to promote
Centre (CDC).
mainstreaming.

1977
Canadian Human
Rights Act.
Increased public
awareness of
disabilities and
diversity.

1976
Overlander Training
Centre is opened
as a Regional
Resource Program
for mentally
challenged
students.

1980s
Move to
integration. Push
to deinstitutionalization.
Terry Fox begins
the Marathon of
Hope.

1978
The Kamloops
Residential School
closes.

Solidarity

Terms
As our beliefs about disability have changed over the years, so, too, has
our language. In the past, we referred to someone by their designation frst.
For example, we might have said, “Tat is an autistic child.” Te person-frst
principle changed that, and we now attempt to refer to the person frst and the
designation second, as in, “She is a child with autism.” You will see person frst
language used somewhat inconsistently in the text, particularly in chapters
which refect earlier time frames. Tis change is now being challenged, as individuals from specifc groups prefer to refer to themselves as “autistics,” which
refects the Neurodiversity Movement.
Other changes in language are more extreme. In the past, individuals
with cognitive delays were called “idiots” or “retarded.” Tose terms are now
considered ofensive. More contemporary language uses terms such as “mentally challenged.”
Yet one more area with a change in terminology is inclusion. Beginning
in the 1960s and 1970s, the word used was mainstreaming. Tis referred to
taking individuals out of institutions and bringing them into the “mainstream.”
4

CHPT. 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE KAMLOOPS-THOMPSON SCHOOL DISTRICT AND REGION

Timeline 1981–1994
1981
United Nations
Year of the
Disabled.

1981
SD24 opens a
Regional Education
Centre for students
with learning
disabilities. The
Special Olympics
begin a program in
Kamloops.

1982
Canadian Charter
of Rights and
Freedoms
guarantees rights
for those with
disabilities.

1985
Canadian Human
Rights Act.
Rick Hansen’s Man
in Motionworldwide
tourbegins.
1984
Tranquille
psychiatric
institution closes.

1989
B. C. School
Act revised
with Special
Needs Student
Order 150/89.
1988
SD24 reviews
integration
practices.

1989
Regional programs
closed due to
funding cuts,
pushing school
districts to total
integration
(inclusion).

1994
Salamanca Accord
signed by 92
governments
worldwide to work
toward free public
education for all.
1989–1993
SD24 provides an
Integration Team
to support schools
and teachers.
Giant Steps West
opens for children
and youth with
autism.

1991
1992
Insight Support
S.O.L.V.E.D.
Services opens
Program begins in
for students with SD24.
Autism Spectrum
Disorder and Fetal
Alcohol Disorder.

Solidarity

Integration is another term that refers to bringing those from minority
groups (in this case, individuals with disabilities) into the larger group. Both
mainstreaming and integration, however, simply place the minority individuals within the larger group. Tis does not mean that they are a part of that
group. Finally, inclusion means that all individuals are included, together, with
none being diferentiated from another. Figure 1.1 illustrates these diferences.

Figure 1.1. Segregation, Integration,
Inclusion (Le Pole, n.d.)

CHPT. 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE KAMLOOPS-THOMPSON SCHOOL DISTRICT AND REGION

5

Timeline 1996–2020+
1999
B. C. Ministry of
Education initiates
a review of special
education services.

1996
Kamloops and North
Thompson School
Districts merge to
become SD73.
Solidarity

2003
2000s
2000
B. C. Ministry of
B. C. teachers strike
Fiscal restraint.
Children and Family focuses on class size
Full Inclusion
Movement.
Development warns and composition.
P. L. 94-142 changed of reduced funding
to IDEA—Individuals for growing numbers
of special needs
with Disabilities
clients andservices.
Education Act.
2003
B. C. teachers strike
focuses on class size
and composition.
Full Inclusion

2006
2008
2014
SET-B. C. established The Canadian
B. C. teachers strike
to provide
government formally focuses on class size
technological
apologies to
and composition.
assistance forstudents Indigenous peoples
with exceptionalities. forresidential school
treatment.

2020+
Choice.
Neurodiversity
Movement.

2014
B. C. teachers strike
focuses on class size
and composition.
Choice

Organization of the Book
As noted above, we have divided the main phases of special education—
Foundational, Emergence, Solidarity, Full Inclusion (Hutchinson, 2016),
and Choice. Each of the following chapters addresses one of these time periods. Within each chapter, there are four main sections—Historical Context,
School District, Community Resources, and an Indigenous Perspective.
Te historical context provides a glimpse into the social and economic
realities of the time. Te school district section discusses the major trends
within the Kamloops-Tompson School District at the time. Te community
resources section highlights the types of services or programs which arose in
the Kamloops-Tompson region, in part to supplement or provide opportunities not available within the formal school system. Each chapter also includes
a brief glimpse of special education from an Indigenous perspective. Afer the
main text, there is a list of individuals who ofered their perspective and experiences on special education within the School District and region. We are
grateful for their contributions. Finally, there is a reference list and a list of
additional resources that may be of interest to the reader.

6

CHPT. 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE KAMLOOPS-THOMPSON SCHOOL DISTRICT AND REGION

References
Bethell, M. (2021). Kamloops-Tompson School District Board Ofce [Photograph]. Personal collection. Kamloops, B. C.
Hutchinson, N. (2016). Inclusion of exceptional learners in Canadian schools: A
practical handbook forteachers (5th ed.). Pearson Canada.
LePole. (n.d.). Segregation, Integration, Inclusion. https://lepole.education/en/
index.php/pedagogical-culture/63-the-inclusive-school?showall=&start=1

CHPT. 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION IN THE KAMLOOPS-THOMPSON SCHOOL DISTRICT AND REGION

7

C h a p te r 2

The Foundational Period
(1812–1950)
Lena Stengel and Sheila Park

Key Concepts
 New settlers to Canada
 Most individuals with exceptionalities are kept (hidden) at home
 1867—Canadian Confederation; education and health care

become a provincial responsibility

 1885—National railway unites regions in Canada
 1831–1886—Schools for the blind and deaf open in Quebec,

Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Manitoba

 1873–1950—Children with severe special needs fall under the

B. C. Mental Health Act

 1885—First public school built in Rayleigh, near Kamloops
 1893—Children’s Aid Societies begin operating in Ontario
 1878–1982—Residential institutions for individuals called men-

tally retarded

 WWI (1914–1918), the Great Depression (1930s), and WWII

(1939–1945) leave little time to consider the needs of those with
exceptionalities
 1947—School District No. 24 is established, which included the
Kamloops-Tompson area, plus Barriere and Chase

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

9

The Foundational Period (1812–1950)
Lena Stengel and Sheila Park

Introduction
Te period from 1800 to 1950 characterized 150 years through which
time children with severe special needs went from being raised and educated
in their own home and community to being institutionalized. Tese children
were taken away from their families and moved far away to cities. Children
who had mild learning difculties, or who were mildly mentally handicapped,
were also moved from home and community education to schools with graded
classrooms and, later, to modifed programs. Tey would learn what it was like
to “fail.”

Historical Context
During this time, British
Columbia had not yet been
established—the United
States and Britain had joint
ownership until June 15th,
1946 when The Treaty of
Washington was signed
which established the
49th parallel as the border
between the two countries
(Francis, 2000).

First People of the Region—Secwépemc People
Tk’emlúps was frst inhabited by the Secwépemc people for thousands of
years before colonization, which began in 1812. At that time, “A large village
existed, Tk’emlúps (Kamloops) near the confuence of the North Tompson
and South Tompson Rivers” (Ignace & Ignace, 2019, p. 8) with approximately
2,000 inhabitants.
Tis meeting of two rivers, Tk’emlúps, made the perfect location for a
village. Te rivers provided water and fsh. Te land and forests surrounding
the village provided wood, plants, berries, and wild game. Dugout canoes were
used to transport people and goods on the river.

European Settlers, Rivers, and Railroads
J. J. Morse (1947) wrote that the frst European to move to the area was
David Stuart, a member of the Pacifc Fur Trading Company. In November
1812, he established a fort which later amalgamated with another company
10

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

and then merged with the Hudson Bay Company in 1821; this fort was maintained in Kamloops until approximately 1885. Te economy in the area was
based on the fur trade. Farming and cattle ranching soon started to provide
for the fort workers and the traders and would go on to be a major part of the
areas’ economy. Forestry and mining also became mainstays for the area. In
the 1850s, the gold rush brought more Europeans to the area (Francis, 2000).

Postcard Showing Kamloops 1800 with the Train Tracks Down
Victoria Street (Klassen, n.d.)
Te Canadian Confederation occurred in 1867, though British Columbia
did not join the Dominion of Canada until 1871. Te Canadian Pacifc Railway
(CPR) that would connect the new country from the Atlantic to the Pacifc
oceans was a federal promise of confederation. With the construction of the
CPR, Kamloops became a railway hub in 1885, with the railway running down
the centre of town, as it still does today. Kamloops beneftted economically as
a centre of railway construction which ensured its status as a trading hub. In
1893, Kamloops was incorporated as a city (Balf,1969; Francis, 2000).
CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

11

In 1867, the British North
America (BNA) Act made
the federal government
responsible for all things
relating to “Indians.” This
included education and
health care, and was the
beginning of the development
of Residential Schools in
Canada.

World War I and Tuberculosis Outbreak
In the 1900s to the 1950s, Kamloops continued to grow, though it also
went through unrest. Te First World War (WWI) (1914–1918) saw many
men join the military and go to war. Tuberculosis was a major health concern.
At that time, 1 in 7 people worldwide died from tuberculosis (also known
as consumption). Many soldiers returned from WWI with the illness and
required hospitalization. Te King Edward Sanitorium was built to the west of
Kamloops in 1907, and later became known as the Tranquille TB Sanitorium.
Te Sanitorium was its own village, complete with houses for the workers,
farms to provide food, a fre hall, a school for workers’ families, and medical buildings (Norton, 1999). A Kamloops teacher provided instruction for
the workers’ children. Antituberculosis medication was introduced in the late
1940s, and the TB Sanitorium eventually closed in 1958 (Norton, 1999).
During the post-war period, the economy in Kamloops and the surrounding areas began to grow. Te population grew as the forestry, mining,
and agricultural industries expanded to meet the growing needs of the province and the export market (Francis, 2000).

Education in Europe and Canada—1700–1950
In the late 1700s, public schooling had just begun in England as the
Industrial Revolution (1788) meant that families were no longer working at
home and children needed to be cared for while their parents worked in factories, mines, and other industrial settings. Public schools became the answer
for childcare. Te concept of public schooling migrated to Canada and laws
were created that required children to attend school. In the late 1700s and
early 1800s, public schools in Canada did not yet exist.

Infant Mortality

Te infant mortality rate in 1830 in Canada was 30% for children under
5 years of age (O’Neil, 1999). It fell to 25% during the mid-late 1800s. Children
born with disabilities may not have survived during this time. Te infant mortality rate fell greatly in the early 1900s, as diferent medical practices and
access to medical care in communities grew.

12

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

British Columbia Education
Tere is no mention of children with special needs in the B. C. Common
School Ordinance (1869). Presumably, these children would be cared for and
taught by the family, to the best of the parents’ ability. Mandatory school attendance laws did not apply to children with severe special needs because they
were covered under the Health or Mental Health Acts until the 1950s. Te
medical model was primarily used at this time to provide “caring for people
with disabilities.”
Later, afer confederation, the B. C. Public School Act of 1872 made no
mention of children with special needs. Children with severe physical or intellectual disabilities continued to fall under the B. C. Health Act.
Schools did not exist in the Kamloops-Tompson area in the early and
mid-1800s. Children were taught at home. Te Standing Rules of the Hudson
Bay Company, 1835, refer to the father teaching his children (Morse, 1947).
Hudson Bay worker families at this time were generally composed of a
European male, an Indigenous wife, and their children. Te father would be
the one who could read and write the English language, so he would teach
the children English. Te mother would teach the children in her Indigenous
language.

Postcard of Kamloops with Allan Mathews Elementary 1912
(Klassen,n.d.)

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

13

Eugenics is a philosophy
that focused on increasing
more desirable human traits
by limiting reproduction.
For example, the white race
was viewed as superior to
other races. Similarly, people
with disabilities were to
be separated from society,
institutionalized, and not
permitted to reproduce. B. C.
developed such legislation
in 1933 with the Sexual
Sterilization Act (Province of
British Columbia, 1933).

Special Facilities in B. C.
During the early 1800s, there were no facilities for children with special
needs in B. C., however, the spread of the eugenics movement led doctors and
political leaders to implement the medical model for caring for people with
disabilities and the insane.
Te residential/treatment facilities were determined to be the way to
care for people of all ages with mental and physical disabilities. When the
Insane Asylums Act (1873) was passed by the B. C. legislature, persons
deemed to be “lunatics” could be institutionalized if two doctors certifed that
commitment was necessary. Institutions were built in the latter part of the
19th century, and children were sent to these facilities following a medical
diagnosis.

The Mental Hospitals Acts
define lunatic as “any insane
person, whether found so by
inquisition or not, or any idiot, or
imbecile, or person of unsound
mind” (Province of British
Columbia Statues, 1924, p. 249).

New Westminster Mental Hospital and Penitentiary
(Dally, ca.1870)

Item# A-03360 Courtesy Royal BC Museum Note:
The Mental Hospital was originally called the Provincial
Lunatic Asylum, and later renamed the Woodlands School

Prior to the opening of the Mount Pleasant School in Vancouver in
1915–1922, deaf children were sent to schools in Manitoba to live their lives
apart from their families. Vancouver opened the Provincial Oral School for
14

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

the deaf and blind in 1912. Tis school later became known as the Jericho Hill
School in 1922. Te Provincial Lunatic Asylum was established in New
Westminster in 1878, and it became the Woodlands School in 1930. Woodlands
was one of the schools that families would send their “low incident” children
as it ofered training and education. Tey housed mentally disabled children
as well as runaways, orphans, and wards of the state. By 1950, there were 1,400
people residing at Woodlands, from babies to adults.

Mental Hospital Act, 1929

(Province of British Columbia, 1929)
CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

15

One room schools in the rural
areas outside Kamloops were
managed by the community
members. Local farmers and
ranchers hired the teacher and
provided room and board for
which the boarding families
were paid.
The grade system was First and
Second Primer and First, Second,
Third, and Fourth Readers, with
some junior and senior sections.
The elementary grades could
be completed in eight years,
followed by a government
examination required to enter
high school. In 1923, the
Education Department adopted
the grade system we still use
today.
With children in all or most
grades, the teacher faced the
monumental task of dividing
time, preparations, and
correcting seatwork.

Children who had exceptional learning needs that were not severe
enough to meet the medical model criteria would attend regular schools. In
small rural schools, their needs would be accommodated in a multi-grade
classroom (ofen a one-room school). Te Rose Hill One Room School House
is one such example on the periphery of Kamloops. In 1913, Miss G. McLean
taught 22 students in all elementary levels at the Rose Hill school for $60 a
month. Usually, teachers only stayed one year and were ofen not much older
than their students.

Rose Hill One Room School House (Bethell, 2014)
Note: This wooden building replaced a log building in 1910
Unlike the rural one-room schools, city schools had separate classrooms
for each grade. Children who did not reach the grade-level requirements
would be retained in the same grade. “Failed” was the terminology used for
this common practice. Ofen children would be failed more than once. Tese
children would be labelled learning disabled or mildly mentally handicapped.

16

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

Grade 4 Reader from Rose Hill
School (Bethell, 1999)

Book plate for the Book
(Bethell, 1999)

Te Putnam Weir Survey of B. C. Schools that was commissioned by
the legislature in 1924 recommended that programs in schools be streamed
and modifed to meet the educational needs of the students. Intelligence tests
assisted in the decision-making on the stream in which a student would be
placed (Ungerleider, 1985).

School District #24 (SD24)
A Boarding School for the Interior

Te passing of the Public School Act of 1872 provided the creation of
the British Columbia Board of Education and the appointment of a superintendent (Cuthbertson, n.d.). Te purpose of this appointment was to
assess educational needs and establish school districts. John Jessop became
British Columbia’s frst superintendent. Jessop completed and submitted a
CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

Streaming refers to the practice
of placing students in designated
avenues of learning, such as
trades or matriculation.

17

The town of Cache Creek
developed because it was on the
Cariboo Wagon Road heading
to the gold fields. During the
Gold Rush, it became a central
location for miners to re-stock
supplies and rest on their
journey.

recommendation report to the Board of Education that highlighted the need
for a centralized boarding school to provide an education for the children of
the interior (Balf, 1969).
Te frst discussion regarding a public school to be established in
Kamloops did not occur until 1872, when prominent Kamloops families and
the Superintendent of Education met at a Hudson’s Bay Company fort to discuss building a boarding school to serve Kamloops and central B. C.
To the dismay of the families of Kamloops, Cache Creek was favoured
as the location of the frst interior school, largely due to the MLA for the Yale
District, Charles A. Semlin, securing a plot of land for the school to be built
upon (Norton, 1996). In June 1874, the Cache Creek Provincial Boarding
School was ofcially opened with an enrollment of 18 students and a monthly
tuition of $8. Joseph Jones was appointed as the frst teacher at the school,
while his wife was employed as the school’s matron. Jones taught the basic
provincial curriculum of reading, arithmetic, writing, dictation, grammar,
geography, and history (Norton, 1996). Te Cache Creek School established
the feasibility of a centralized boarding school. Former students recall their
time at the school as a joyous one:
“Our entertainment was very simple. We had music and
every evening we marched into the large dining room and
sang. . . Every Saturday we went hill-climbing. . . Sunday service was held in the school rooms. . . We had regular hours
for everything—music, study, getting up, meals, and going to
bed” (Balf, 1969, p. 4).
Te school closed in September of 1890 due, in part, to low enrollment, as
schools in local communities opened.

18

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

Cache Creek Provincial Boarding School- 1873

Item # A-03501 Courtesy Royal BC Museum (Royal B.C. Museum, 1873)

Private Schools in Kamloops
Although Kamloops would not build its frst public school until 1885,
the area did have several private schools that families could send their children to for a tuition fee. Te most notable was St. Ann’s Academy, a residential school for girls that opened in 1880. Te school provided the basic
curriculum taught throughout the province while also ofering domestic studies courses, music, sewing, embroidery, and French. Te girls attending the
school received weekly lessons on ladylike behaviour, including politeness and
ladylike deportment.
St. Ann’s Academy further expanded in 1882 and opened a residential
boys’ wing called the St. Louis Mission School for Boys. Tough the school had
the capacity for 150 students, many families felt their sons should be on the
farm rather than in the classroom. Unfortunately, the boys’ school was closed
a couple of years later. St. Ann’s Academy continued to thrive with steady
enrollment and a favourable reputation. Te school relocated to downtown
CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

19

Kamloops following the completion of the CPR in 1888. Te new location
included the addition of a junior boys’ wing. St. Ann’s Academy had continued success and is still an operational private school in Kamloops that ofers
kindergarten to Grade 12 instruction.

St. Ann’s Academy (Bethell, 2021)
Kamloops’s First Public Elementary Schools
In 1885, the Kamloops District constructed the frst public school
with the building of the Rayleigh School under head teacher Miss Margaret
Dallas. Tough this establishment provided a local public school, the school
was still 12 miles outside of the core of Kamloops’s downtown. Terefore, the
prominent families of the area continued to advocate for a school to be built
within Kamloops. In 1886, their eforts were acknowledged and arrangements
for a schoolhouse to be built on 1 Avenue was granted and it was named the
Kamloops School. Te prominent families quickly elected their frst Board of
School Trustees, and Mr. E. Stuart Wood was brought on as the head teacher.
Within a year, the school building was overcrowded as enrollment reached
78 students, and an expansion was added. In 1893, with a continued rise in
enrollment reaching 140 students, a new school building was constructed at 3
Avenue and St. Paul Street; it was a four-room schoolhouse. Much of the teaching and learning was rote memorization, assessed by frequent examinations.
20

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

Rote learning is defined as the
memorization of information
based on repetition. The two
best examples of rote learning
are the alphabet and numbers.
Slightly more complicated
examples include the
multiplication tables and spelling
words. At the high school level,
scientific elements and their
chemical numbers would be
memorized by rote.

Stuart Wood School (Bethell, 2017)
In 1907, another expansion was necessary to house the students (Kam
High Alumni, n.d.). An eight-room schoolhouse was constructed of brick, and
the school was renamed Stuart Wood Elementary School. Te school closed
in 2016, but the brick building is a beautiful artifact in downtown Kamloops.
A number of one-room schoolhouses also became operational between the
1900 and the 1920s, which provided education to students who were transported by bus to Kamloops. However, a number of rural families opted for the
rural schoolhouse, though they rarely stayed operational for long periods of
time due to low and inconsistent enrollment.

Kamloops High Schools
Te frst high school in Kamloops was in the attic of the new Stuart
Wood Kamloops School on 3 Avenue in 1907, ofering grades 9 to 11. As
enrollment increased, a new Kamloops high school opened in 1913 at the
corner of 6 Avenue and St. Paul Street, later becoming the Allan Matthews
Elementary School and then the Learning Centre. Te school was eventually
labelled the worst building in the School District and was fnally closed and
CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

21

demolished in 1989. Te property was sold, and the RCMP station was built
on the site.

Kamloops Junior Secondary School, 1953. Item # I-22779 Courtesy

Royal B.C. Museum (Royal BC Museum, 1953)

South Kamloops Secondary, (Bethell, 2021)
Amalgamation Creates a New School District—SD24
In 1947, School District No. 24 was established and the schools in the
Kamloops-Tompson area amalgamated to include Barriere and Chase.

22

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

Figure 2.1. Map of the Kamloops-Tompson Region. (Bethell, 2021) Note: Image created by Kathleen

Jane Bethell. Used with permission.

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

23

Indigenous Education
Traditionally, Indigenous children were educated within their community and “based on three sources of knowledge: that provided by family and
community members, that learned through experience, and that ofered by
elders” (Murphy, Nicholas, & Ignace, 1999, p. 1). In 1867, the British North
America (BNA) Act made the federal government responsible for all things
relating to “Indians.” Tis included education and health care, which lead to
the development of residential schools for Canada’s Indigenous children. Te
purpose of residential schools was to assimilate Indigenous peoples into mainstream Canadian society.
Residential Schools
“The legacy of the destruction
of language was and still is far
reaching. Children from the
Residential schools found they
could no longer communicate
with their parents and
grandparents; the transmission
of culture from generation
to generation was silenced”
(Murphy, Nicholas & Ignace,
1999, p.58)

Residential Schools
In 1890, the Kamloops Residential School was opened. Sadly, the experiences of children attending the Kamloops Residential School was not one
that provided a superior education but rather perpetuated inequality and tragedy through discriminatory policies and underfunding. Te students were
prohibited from speaking Indigenous languages and practising any cultural
traditions. Tey were ofen banned from speaking to their siblings or other
family members who also attended the school. Accounts of mental, physical,
and sexual abuse have been reported.

Kamloops Residential School (Bethell, 2017)

24

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

Tough students received a similar curriculum to that ofered across
British Columbia, their school day consisted of only two to four hours of
instruction in the classroom. Te remainder of the school day consisted of
maintaining the school and grounds, cooking and cleaning, mending uniforms, and other chores (Gleason & Barman, 2003). Over 500 students
attended the school during its operations, which concluded in 1969.
At that time, the school did not close; it operated as a residence for dayschool students when the government took over the administration from the
Catholic Church. Te Kamloops Residential School ofcially closed in 1978.
Te legacy of residential schools continues to be felt around Canada by
the children who did not receive the love and care they deserved. Te children
did not learn to cherish and appreciate their culture and identity, and, tragically, ofen language and traditions were lost and never passed on to the next
generation.

References
Balf, M. (1969). Kamloops: a history of the district up to 1914 (3rd ed.). Kamloops
Museum Association.
Bethell, K. J. (2021). Map of the Kamloops-Tompson Region [Image]. Personal collection, Kamloops, B. C.
Bethell, M. (2017). Kamloops Residential School [Photograph]. Personal collection,
Kamloops, B. C.
Bethell, M. (2021). South Kamloops Secondary [Photograph]. Personal collection,
Kamloops, B. C.
Bethell, M. (2021). St. Ann’s Academy [Photograph]. Personal collection, Kamloops,
B. C.
Bethell, M. (2017). Stuart Wood School [Photograph]. Personal collection, Kamloops,
B. C.
Bethell, M. (2014). Rose Hill One Room School House [Photograph]. Personal collection, Kamloops, B. C.
Bethell, M. (1999). Grade 4 Reader from Rose Hill School and Book Plate for the Book
[Photographs]. Personal collection, Kamloops, B. C.
Cuthbertson, S. (n.d.). A highlight history of British Columbia. https://www.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/exhibits/tbird-park/html/present/stann/sb5/sb5hhist.pdf
Dally, F. (presumed). (ca. 1870). [Black and white photograph New Westminster
Mental Hospital and Penitentiary] Maynard album (Item A-033600). Royal B.
C. Museum, B. C. Archives, Victoria, B. C.
Francis, D. (Ed.). (2000). Te Encyclopedia of British Columbia. Harbour Publishing.

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

25

Gleason, M., & Barman, J. (2003). Children, teachers and schools in the history of British Columbia (2nd ed.). Detselig Enterprises.
Ignace, M., & Ignace, R. E. (2019). Secwépemc people, land and laws. McGill-Queens’s
University Press.
Kam High Alumni. (n.d.). Te early years: 1904–1952. http://www.kamhigh.com/EarlyYears.asp
Klassen, J. (n.d.). [Postcard of Kamloops with Allan Mathews Elementary School in
Kamloops, 1912]. Personal collection, Kamloops, B. C.
Klassen, J. (n.d.). [Postcard showing Kamloops 1800 with the train tracks down Victoria Street]. Personal collection, Kamloops, B. C.
Morse, J. J. (1947). Kamloops the hub. School District No. 24.
Murphy, P.J., Nicholas, P., & Ignace, M. (1999). Coyote, stories and teachings from the
Secwépemc. Teytus Books Ltd.
O’Neil, A. (1999). Child mortality rate in Canada, 1830–2020. Statistica, Canada.
www.statistica.ca
New Westminster Archives. (ca. 1880). Te Provincial Lunatic Asylum, Later Known
as Woodlands School (New Westminster) 1880 (Item # IHP 1714-12 Record ID
19758). New Westminster Archives, New Westminster, B. C.
Norton, W. (1999). A whole little city by itself. Plateau Press.
Norton, W. (1996). Te Cache Creek Provincial Boarding School 1874–1890. B.C. Historical News, 29(2), 30–33. https://www.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/exhibits/tbirdpark/html/present/stann/sb5/sb5hhist.pdf
Province of British Columbia. (1933). An Act respecting Sexual Sterilization (Ch. 59).
https://free.bcpublications.ca/civix/document/id/hstats/hstats/1887728313
Province of British Columbia. (1929). An Act relating to Mental Hospitals (Ch. 158).
Statutes—Consolidated July 1, 1939. Banfeld Press.
Royal B. C. Museum. (1953). Kamloops Junior Secondary, 1953 [Photograph]. (Item #
I-22779), Royal B. C. Museum, B. C. Archives, Victoria, B. C.
Royal B. C. Museum. (1873). Cache Creek Provincial Boarding School—1873 [Photograph]. (Item # A-03501), Royal B. C. Museum, B. C. Archives, Victoria, B. C.
Ungerleider, C. S. (1985). Te social and educational consequences of standardized
testing: A point of view. McGill Journal of Education, 20(3), 1–12. https://mje.
mcgill.ca/article/view/7641

Additional Resources

Duf, W. (1969). Te Indian history of British Columbia (Vol. 1)—Te impact of the
white man. British Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria, B. C.
Heritage Committee. (1984). Bunch grass to Barbed Wire:—just a little south of Kamloops (4th ed.). Rose Hill Farmers Institute.

26

CHPT. 2. THE FOUNDATIONAL PERIOD (1812–1950)

C h a p te r

3

The Emergence of Special
Education as a Discipline
(1950–1969)
Marney Bethell, Sheila Park, and Mary Ellen Patterson

Key Concepts
 Post-war leads to baby boomers, focus on the family, more time, and

more disposable income

 Residential institutions for handicapped children and adults
 Residential Indian schools for Indigenous students
 TV exposes global events and wider awareness of issues, social justice,

and civil rights Parent associations emerge
Normalization movement
1958—Canadian Association for Retarded Children
1963—Canadian Association for Children With Learning Disabilities
Special schools or development centres open to educate those with
“mental retardation”
 Some schools open segregated programs for those at both ends of the
exceptionality spectrum—gifed and mentally challenged
 Growth of post-secondary education, with special education teacher
training programs





CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

27

The Emergence of Special Education as a Discipline
(1950–1969)
Marney Bethell, Sheila Park, and Mary Ellen Patterson
The Baby Boom is defined as a
temporary marked increase in
the birth rate, especially the one
following World War II.

Introduction
As parents started to advocate for their children, a number of associations were formed including the Canadian Association for Retarded Children
(1958) and the Canadian Association for Children With Learning Disabilities
(1963). Special schools and development centres opened to educate those with
“mental retardation.” Some Kamloops schools had segregated programs for
those at both ends of the exceptionality spectrum—gifed and mentally challenged. Teacher and Teaching Assistant training programs in special education became available at the post-secondary level.

Historical Context

Jonas Salk invented the polio
vaccine in1955. Until that time,
the annual summer epidemic of
polio was one of the most feared
events for parents. Although
the illness struck all ages, most
victims were children. Many
people died or were left with
mild to disabling paralysis.

28

Te 1950–1960s were marked by persistent tension between capitalism
and communism. Te Korean War (1950–1953), the Space Race, and the Cold
War were all a part of daily life. Schoolchildren practised drills at school to
“duck and cover” and “get under your desk—move fast.” Te efects of the
post-war baby boom were felt in many school districts. Classrooms, schools,
and school districts were overcrowded.
Te average Canadian living wage skyrocketed during the 1950s.
Industry boomed; there were jobs and families could aford to buy a house
and a car. Tere was more of a focus on the family, with more time and more
disposable income. Social welfare reforms were taking place, including
Universal Health Care and Old Age Pensions. Jonas Salk invented the polio
vaccine in 1955.

CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

Bustling and Robust Kamloops Region
Kamloops was known as a cowboy and ranching community and seasonally had cattle drives down Victoria Street as the cattle were pushed to
and from the Lac de Bois grassland to graze. Te Kamloops Rodeo had continued annually since 1941, and, by 1959, it had over 6,000 spectators and
featured a bufalo riding contest. It was the real deal—rough and tough and
western. Kamloops was also a mining town with forestry resources and Sick’s
Brewery, which later became Molson’s Brewery at Campbell Creek, growing
hops and producing beer. Te Tompson region was also known for hunting
and fshing, and it was a major stop for the Canadian National Railway, with
two railways meeting in the city. Te Kamloops Pulp and Paper Company
was built in 1965 (it became Weyerhaeuser in 1971 and Domtar in 2007) and
would become one of the major employers in the community. Other large
employers included the service industry, Royal Inland Hospital, the Tranquille
Institute, and the School District. Life was good in Kamloops. Mortgage rates
and property taxes were low. People had jobs and money to spend. Te largest
percentage of the population was between 25 and 44 years of age. Kamloops
was the frst city in Canada with a population of less than 50,000 to operate its
own TV station.
Television was advertised as leading to better informed, and therefore
happier, people. Tere were fve hours of nightly programs. TV exposed the
community to global events and a wider awareness of issues, social justice, and
civil rights.

School District #24 (SD24)
In the early 1950s, the baby boomers became school-aged and classrooms were bursting at the seams. British Columbia was experiencing a severe
shortage of teachers. Te Department of Education was reorganized, and a
recruitment program in England brought 65 teachers to Kamloops (SD24) in
1955 alone. Future Teachers Clubs were organized in schools across the province to encourage students to become teachers. Te PTAs (Parent-Teacher
Associations) were promoted, and they endorsed the principle of teacher-parent conferences.

CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

29

A Boom in School Building

Open Area Classrooms were
popular in the late 1960s. They
supported student-centred
learning. The classroom was
equivalent to four standard
classrooms, with students of
varying abilities from those
classrooms in a large open
space, without walls, with
several teachers (hopefully
working collaboratively)
overseeing the students as they
worked in small groups to meet
personal goals.

30

In the 1950s, a number of schools were opened in both North Kamloops,
which was its own village, and Kamloops. Te schools included North
Kamloops Elementary (formerly Fruitlands School), Brockelhurst Elementary,
John Todd, George Hilliard, AE Perry, Bert Edwards, and North Kamloops
Secondary. Westsyde Elementary, Hefey Creek Elementary, and Brennan
Creek School all opened in the mid-1950s.
On the south shore of
Kamloops, Beattie, Dallas,
Marion Shilling (originally Valleyview), Ralph
Bell Elementary, and John
Peterson Junior Secondary
School all opened their
doors. South Kamloops
Secondary opened in 1952
with 1,000 students in
grades 7–13 and with a
Beattie Elementary. Item # Slide 685.
staf of 45. Te former high
(Cragg, ca.1960). Courtesy Kamloops and
school on 6 Avenue and
Archives
St. Paul Street became the
Allan Matthews Elementary School and later the Learning Centre. Te school
was eventually labelled the worst building in the district; it was fnally closed,
and the property was sold to become the new RCMP Station. Several of the
elementary schools were opened as Open Area classrooms, which were ahead
of their time since Vancouver schools did not operate open area schools until
the latter part of the 1960s.
At Arthur Stevenson Elementary in Westsyde, there was a designated
area for Art, with a large sink with water and a kiln. For Science, there were
small sinks and Bunsen burners, and there were other areas for Reading,
Social Studies, and Math. Multiple lessons proceeded at the same time.
Creative students with low anxiety had good success in the open area learning
environment, while students with high anxiety, or who were easily distracted,
found that they could not focus. “It was noisy and challenging for students and
CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

teachers who needed peace and quiet in their learning environment. However,
the principles behind open area classrooms are still a part of modern education—collaboration, independence, student-centred learning, and exploration” (M. Bethell, personal communication, May 1, 2021).

Figure 3.1 New Kamloops Schools 1950s

(Bethell, 2021) Note: Image created by Kathleen Jane Bethell.

CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

31

The BC Ministry of Education
ties funding to the different
categories of special needs/
disability/ability. For example,
there are three levels of funding
above the Basic Allotment grant.
Level 1
- Physically Dependent (A)
- Deaf blind (B)
Level 2
- Moderate to Profound
Intellectual Disability (C)
- Physically Disability or Chronic
Health Impairment (D)
- Visual Impairment (E)
- Deaf or Hard of Hearing (F)
Autism Spectrum Disorder (G)
Level 3
- Intensive Behaviour
Interventions or Serious Mental
Illness (H)

Residential Placements for Those With Handicaps
Special needs children were simply not seen in communities or schools
in the early 1950s. Medical and education experts advised families to place
their children in residential schools—facilities where they would live and
be cared for full time, taught and cared for away from their families. Tese
children ofen required higher levels of support. At that time, the Canadian
government took no responsibility for the education of children with developmental disabilities, now known as Low Incidence students. “Low incident”
refers to disability areas categories that occur rarely or in low numbers such
as blind and deaf, physically dependent, multiple needs, and moderate to profound intellectual disabilities. Tese students were not usually seen in public
or in public schools.
Woodlands School in New Westminster was one of the schools for “low
incident” children, which was favoured by families because it ofered training and education. Woodlands housed mentally disabled children as well as
runaways, orphans, and wards of the state. By 1950, there were 1,400 people
residing at Woodlands, from babies to adults. It is interesting to note that
Woodlands also had an Autism Unit in 1965.

(Government of British Columbia,
2002)

New Westminster Hospital and Penitentiary.

(Dally, [Presumed], ca. 1870)
Note: Woodlands School of the Mentally Disabled in New Westminster, B.C.
32

CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

Tranquille Residential Institution

Figure 3.2 Map of Tranquille Institution.

Note: Image created by Kathleen Jane Bethell. Used with permission.
In 1958, the Tranquille Tuberculosis Sanitorium, just north of the city
of Kamloops on Kamloops Lake, was closed and one year later reopened as
a psychiatric institution called the Residential Institution for the Mentally
Defcient (Crowston, 2002). Under the direction of the Department of Mental
CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

33

Terms - Today, we refer to
individuals with lower than
typical cognitive ability
as mentally challenged,
mentally disabled, or mentally
handicapped. Previous
terms include: slow learners,
mentally retarded, mentally
deficient, intellectually delayed,
retarded, and idiots.
For both programming and
funding purposes, individuals
with mental challenges were
also categorized, based on
their IQ (Intellectual Quotient)
scores. For example, if an IQ
of 100 (with a range from 80
to 120) is considered “normal,”
those with IQ scores in the
60 to 80 range would be
considered mildly mentally
disabled, while those with
IQ scores lower than 60 may
be considered moderately to
profoundly mentally disabled.

Health, the new Tranquille institution operated a nursing/custodial/medical
care model. Families sent their children born with special needs to this facility; some patients were transferred from Woodlands School. Many families
moved to Kamloops to be closer to their children. Tranquille operated this
psychiatric hospital until 1984. When Tranquille was opened, it was billed
as being a progressive, cutting-edge training school and residence for mentally challenged adults that provided a fulflling experience for persons of
“very mild handicaps” (Crowston, 2002). Te facility was self-contained and
included the farm, dairy herd, laundry, powerhouse, fre department, kitchens, and cafeteria which had continued from the TB Sanitorium days.
In July 1959, the frst residents arrived from Woodlands—young males
who were mild to moderately retarded—and were housed in the Central
Building. In 1961, females who had a similar level of cognitive function were
transferred from Woodlands to the Main Building at Tranquille. Residents
were employed onsite in the laundry, kitchen, garage, farm, piggery, or as a
cleaning crew making beds in other wards. Tey also attended Occupational
and Recreational Terapy classes which included leatherwork, copper tooling,
weaving, rug hooking, mosaic stone pictures, and crafs.

Main Building at Tranquille (Bethell, 2020)

34

CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

Grieves Building at Tranquille (Bethell, 2020)
From a Custodial to a Training Model
In 1963, the Department of Human Resources under Social Services
and Housing took over from the Department of Mental Health and the custodial model was phased out and a training or normalization philosophy was
emphasized. Te mandate was to train and prepare residents for placement in
the community.
Te frst 20 beds were allocated in the community, in boarding homes
and group homes, under pressure from parents and the community advocacy group, the Association for the Mentally Retarded. If the placement in
the home was not successful, the person could return to Tranquille for several
more months of training. Te residents participated in downtown training
and orientation—to see and be seen. At this time, few Kamloops residents
had ever seen “special needs” people, primarily because the children were sent
away to institutions. (At the time, the term “retarded” was not understood
in the way we do today; it was something you called your brother if you were
mad at him!). By 1965, 580 residents had been transferred from Woodlands

CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

35

Before the 1950s, people with
special needs were rarely seen
as they were sent to live and
grow up in institutions such as
Woodlands in New Westminster
and Tranquille in Kamloops.

and, by 1967, most mild to moderate handicapped residents had been placed
in the community. Tis same year, the Grieves Building at Tranquille opened
for 97 of the most physically disabled patients.
Most people who worked at Tranquille loved their time at the facility.
Tey were a close-knit group who have continued to stay in touch, even years
later. Many staf donated personal time to residents and ofen brought their
families to the many activities and recreational events including Carnival
Days, May Day, Halloween dances, and Christmas activities. Many people volunteered at Tranquille, running clubs such as Girl Guides, Boy Scouts, a model
train group, stamp collecting, and they assisted during vacations to the lake,
Pine Park, and Kamp Kiwanis. Tese volunteers held hands, provided support
while walking, pushed wheelchairs, and helped feed the residents. Tey even
took residents to visit family homes on the Lower Mainland (Crowston, 2002).
Rowna Weys was a Ward Aid at the time and also volunteered afer
hours. She started Te Club Room at Tranquille, along with her husband and
family friends, and remembers her time at Tranquille with fondness (R. Weys,
personal communication, December 9, 2018).

From Training, to Educating, to Mainstreaming, and
Then Integration

Tranquille School for the
Mentally Retarded Brochure
(B.C. Mental health Branch.
[Presumed], 1959) Item #
2018-244.001.008 Courtesy
Kamloops Museum and
Archives(School District #24,
1965)

36

By the late 1950s, Te Public School Act was amended to permit school
boards to operate separate classes for “moderately handicapped” children in
a regular school. As more children remained in their home communities,
school districts became legally bound to provide programs to educate children
with special needs. School District 24 (today known as SD73) faced challenges
since Tranquille was within their school district boundaries; the district had
to provide schools and develop programs to meet the growing needs of the
families of children who resided at Tranquille. Kamloops educators were consistently at the forefront of the creation of special education programs;
as the philosophy within the B. C. Ministry of Education changed, SD24
educators needed to know how best to meet the education needs of these
children.
Families, educators, members of the medical community, and the
civil rights movement all contributed to ensuring there were opportunities for children to remain at home with their families instead of being
institutionalized.
CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

Dean Paravantes, a principal at the time, noted that “there was an anomaly that occurred at the peak time of parent advocacy. Te movement of integration was happening at the same time as the government was cutting resources
to support integration and so the two processes collided. Te teachers and the
School District took the brunt of parent unhappiness, but the schools simply
lacked the resources” (personal communication, March 20, 2020).
In 1955, Jean Klepachuk was hired by the Kamloops school district to
teach all subjects and create her own program for a class of “slow learners” at
Allen Matthews School. Fifeen students were chosen, aged 8–15, most of
whom had attended school for four years but had made little progress. Tis
special class operated for two years. Ms. Klepachuk reported “steady progress
in attitude and work habits as well as academic achievement” (LaRoche &
Johnson, 2011, p. 11). A similar program ran in North Kamloops. In 1962 Jean
Moorcraf, had a class for “slow learners” primary class at North Kamloops
Elementary (teaching Grades 1–3 [the students were aged 9–13]). One year
later the children were integrated into regular classes.
In 1965, School District #24 opened
Fitzwater School for the Retarded. Te school
was named for Mayor Jack Fitzwater who was
particularly interested in mentally challenged
children. Previously, the school was run by the
Kamloops Society for the Mentally
Challenged. Te students were from Kamloops
and the surrounding communities, as well as
students who were residents at Tranquille.
Mary Highman was the head teacher and Vic
Mowbray was the frst principal (at the same
time continuing to be the principal at North
Fitzwater School Grand
Kamloops Elementary).
Opening Program cover
Vic Mowbray recalls, “Fitzwater was basi- (School District #24,
cally a private school for both the mentally and 1965)
physically challenged. At frst it was a passive
care model, and the staf was not ofcially qualifed or trained. Te learning model continued to change from custodial to an
educational model, thus recognizing that even the most handicapped people
could improve, given a sound program and even the most severely disabled child

In 1963, the Canadian
Association for Children With
Learning Difficulties was
formed. Special schools, or
development centres, opened
to educate children with
“mental retardation.” Some
schools and classes opened
with segregated programs
for those at both ends of the
exceptionality spectrum—gifted
and mentally challenged.

CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

37

was able to be taught, to improve and to grow. Te biggest change was that professional teachers were hired, and the staf recognized that every child deserved
the most normal life possible. Fitzwater School became a leader in special education in the country with many innovative practices by a young, dedicated, welltrained staf. One of the innovations included a change in criteria for admission,
allowing younger and more severely handicapped children access to an educational facility. Students were allowed to stay longer, to 20 years of age” (personal
communication, September 21, 2019).

Program from the Ofcial Opening of Fitzwater School

(School District #24, 1965)
Note: The program handout from December 6,1965 included a history of
the school’s development with the history of the school.
38

CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

Community Resources
Parent Groups and Post-Secondary Educator Training
By 1955, more and more parents were unwilling to send their children
away and began to organize non-proft societies within the community, using
homes and church basements. Te Civil Rights Movement, parents, educators, members of the medical community, and the courts all had an impact in
having children with special needs raised by their families, educated in public
schools, and living in their home communities from childhood into adulthood. Tese parent groups formed a provincial network that grew into the B.
C. Association of Community Living, which is now called Inclusion B. C.
Te provincial government introduced funding for handicapped students as
part of the basic grant to local school boards in 1955, and UBC was the frst
to ofer training for special education teachers. Tranquille was the frst institution to assist in setting up a Health Care Worker program at Cariboo College,
which is now Tompson Rivers University. Tranquille workers were paid a
fve-month leave to attend the program, which was signifcant since Tranquille
was one of the biggest employers in Kamloops, second only to the Domtar
Pulp and Paper Mill.

Community Agencies
A committee was formed in 1955 to study the problems faced by special
needs children with the intent to form a special school. Tere was plenty of
support in the community for special needs children and their families. Over
70 representatives from diferent service clubs, groups, and interested organizations came together to form the Kamloops and District Society to Assist
Mentally Retarded Children. Te Pleasant Street School was “the school
that Kamloops built.” Te Lions Club donated the building, the Kinsman
Club underwrote the cost of moving it, and the Elks laid the foundation on
land that was donated by the City of Kamloops on the corner of 7th Avenue
and Pleasant Street, behind the Kinsman Park Playground. Tere were many
donations from the community as well, including a sink, stove, fridge, tables
and chairs, and hundreds of other items both large and small, including labour
to add a foor, ceiling, furnace, washrooms, and to paint. Donations continued
with sales of membership in the Society. Over the years, the community and
CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

The Kamloops Society for
Community Inclusion (KSCI),
formerly known as the Kamloops
Society for Community Living
and then the Inclusion
Kamloops Society, was
formed in 1956 by a group of
concerned parents who wanted
an alternative for their children
at a time when children who
were born with developmental
disabilities were excluded from
the regular school system. Since
then, the Society has served the
needs of people with disabilities
and their families through
a wide range of community
activities, projects, and services
(see www.inclusionkamloops.ca).

39

A sheltered workshop is a
workplace for adults who have a
physical or mental disability. The
Pleasant Street School created
ribbons for track and field events
and Fall Fair ribbons.

“Children with special needs
are more alike than unlike
other children” —Deb Frolek,
Executive Director for the Child
Development Centre (Retired)
(personal communication, June
11, 2021).

40

service clubs continued to support the children and the school.
Te school was move-in ready by Christmas 1956; it cared for children
from 5 to 18 years of age. Mary Higham was the frst teacher. Later, she became
the head teacher for Fitzwater School. Fitzwater School was considered to be
the fnest school anywhere by the President of the Association for Retarded
Children of B. C. In the autumn of 1961, the Kamloops School District took
over the administration of the school. It became an employment facility and a
sheltered workshop for mentally handicapped adults as the school district
began integrating their special needs children (Duckworth, 1992).
Te Central Interior Neurological
Association (CINA) was established May 17,
1967, and primarily provided therapy services
for special needs children in the community.
Te CINA brokered these services through
the Royal Inland Hospital (RIH). It evolved
to become an inclusive preschool in the community, with a blend of children with and
without special needs, and later became the
Kamloops Child Development Centre. Te
Centre was originally funded by the Cerebral
Palsy Association of B. C., and they also acted
as agents for the B. C. Epilepsy Association
for the Central Interior of the province, which Mary Higham- First
was a diferent society. Funding was always a teacher at Pleasant
challenge. Tis non-proft group worked to Street School and later
keep children from the same family together, the head teacher at
whether that involved special needs or simply Fitzwater School (School
District #24, ca. 1965)
day care needs. Indigenous children were also
included. Te RIH continued to ofer this outreach therapy service afer the CINA became the Kamloops Child Development
Society. Deborah Frolek was the Executive Director of the Centre for 38 years,
during which time the Centre was accepting children with a wide variety of
disabilities, not just neurological impairment or cerebral palsy. Deb Frolek
recalls that “their main philosophy was children with special needs are more
alike than unlike other children” (personal communication, June 11, 2021)
Te Child Development Centre began its operation out of the Pleasant
CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

Street School, but when the building was destroyed by a fre on December 29,
1979, they rented space in the Kamloops Residential School (for Indigenous
children and youth) for three years while raising funds to build the Child
Development Centre, which is currently located at 157 Holway Street.

Indigenous Perspective
Since 1890, Indigenous children were taken from their families and sent
to live and be educated in residential schools. Te term “residential school”
refers to an extensive school system set up by the Canadian government and
administered by the church. Kamloops is home to one of the largest residential
schools in the country, and, with forced attendance, the number of students
peaked at 500 residents during the 1950s. Te Kamloops Residential School
was run by the Roman Catholic Missionaries Mary Immaculate Oblates but
was taken over by the federal government in 1969. Indigenous children from
other communities continued to “dorm” at the school while attending district
schools. Te Kamloops Residential School fnally closed in 1978.

Interview Contributors
 Bartch, Marg (Retired teacher)
 Frolek, Deb (Retired Executive Director for the Child Development

Centre)

 Mowbray, Vic (Retired principal)
 Paravantes, Dean (Retired principal)
 Weys, Rowna (Retired Ward Aide, Tranquille School)

CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

41

References
B. C. Mental Health Branch. (Presumed). (1959). Te Tranquille School for the Mentally Retarded [Brochure]. Tranquille Neighbourhood Collection (2019.244,
Box 2, Folder 3). Kamloops Museum and Archives, Kamloops, B. C.
Bethell, M. (2020). Greaves Building [Photograph]. Personal collection. Kamloops,
B. C.
Bethell, M. (2020). Main building at Tranquille [Photograph]. Personal collection,
Kamloops, B. C.
Cragg, R. B. A. (ca. 1960). [Coloured photograph of Beattie Elementary School].
R. B. A. Cragg fonds (1989009.051, Box 2, Folder 3). Kamloops Museum and
Archives, Kamloops, B. C.
Crowston, G. (2002). Te ghosts of Tranquille past. Gena Crowston.
Dally, F. (Presumed). (ca. 1870). [Black and white photograph of New Westminster
Hospital and Penitentiary].
Maynrard album (Item A-0336). Royal B. C. Museum, B. C. Archives, Victoria, B. C.
Duckworth, E. (1992, September 5). Pleasant memories. Kamloops Daily News, B15.
Government of British Columbia. (2002). K-12 Funding—Special Needs. https://
www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/ education-training/k-12/administration/legislation-policy/public-schools/k-12-funding-special-needs
Kamloops Museum and Archives, [Brochure for Tranquille School front cover], R. B.
A. Cragg fonds (#2018.244.001.008 Album #9), Kamloops, B. C.
LaRoche, M., & Johnson, D. (2011). A passion for sharing (2nd ed.). BCRTA Kamloops, SD 73 Kamloops-Tompson Heritage Committee.
School District #24. (1965). Ofcial opening of J. E. Fitzwater School [Program]. School
District #73 Archives, Kamloops, B. C.

Additional Resources

Damer, W., & LaRoche, M. (2005). A passion for sharing. Anecdotes of retired elementary teachers of SD73. BCRTA Kamloops, SD 73 Kamloops-Tompson Heritage
Committee.
Damer, W., & LaRoche, M. (2007). A passion for learning. Anecdotes of retired secondary teachers of SD#73. BCRTA Kamloops, SD 73 Kamloops-Tompson Heritage
Committee 2007.
Hatch, R., Duckworth, E., Gropp, S., & Bennett., S. (2012). Kamloops trading post to
tournament capital. Tompson Rivers History and Heritage Society.
McCallum, D. (2002). Te need to know: Administrative review of Woodlands School.
Report for the Provincial Government.
O’Neill, E. (2018). From institution to inclusion: A history of special education in B.C.
schools. BCTF Magazine, 31(1), 1–3.
Sweeney, C. (2007). Woodlands Psychiatric. Vancouver Traces. https://vancouvertraces.weebly.com

42

CHPT. 3. THE EMERGENCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE (1950–1969)

C h a p te r

4

Solidarity in Special
Education: Advocacy,
Rights, and Reform
(1970–2000)
Marilyn McLean

Key Concepts
 1975 – United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Disabled Persons
 US Public Law (PL) 94-142—Education of All Handicapped Children

Act

 Mainstreaming begins with a focus on developing IEPs and processes










to protect the rights of students with disabilities
Cascade model of service delivery
1977—Canadian Human Rights Act
More public awareness of disabilities
1980s—integration has replaced mainstreaming
Late 1980s—provincial governments undertake reviews of special
education services
Te Canadian Association for the Mentally Retarded pushes for
deinstitutionalization
1980—Terry Fox begins his Marathon of Hope
1985—Rock Hansen’s Man in Motion worldwide tour raises awareness
and money for research for those with spinal cord injuries
1994—Salamanca Accord is signed by 92 governments worldwide to
work towards free public education for all, regardless of sex or ability
at UNESCO event in Salamanca, Spain

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

43

Solidarity in Special Education:
Advocacy, Rights, and Reform
(1970–2000)
Marilyn McLean

Introduction
Te era from 1970 until 2000 was a time of great change in the education
of students with disabilities. Tis exciting era was marked by the passing of
legislation in North America that helped hasten the change from educating
students with disabilities in a segregated school to educating them in an integrated setting in their neighbourhood school.

Historical Context

Special Needs Students
Order, Ministerial Order
150/89
(2) A board must provide a
student with special needs with
an educational program in a
classroom where that student is
integrated with other students
who do not have special needs,
unless the educational needs of
the student with special needs
or other students indicate that
the educational program for
the student with special needs
should be provided otherwise (B.
C. School Act, Ministerial Order
150/89, 1989 & am. 1995, 2007)

44

Te United States enacted the Education for all Handicapped Children
Act (EHA) in 1975. Tis Act ensured that all students with a disability would
be provided with a free, appropriate public education tailored to their specifc needs. In 1997, this Act was reauthorized and renamed the Individuals
with Disabilities Act (IDEA). While Canada did not have the same legislation,
educators looked to the United States to establish best practice in educating
students with disabilities.

Canadian and Provincial Legislation—The Rights and
Services for the Disabled
In Canada, three pieces of legislation were passed that refected the fundamental rights for individuals with disabilities: Te Canadian Charter of
Rights and Freedoms (1982), the Canadian Human Rights Act (1985), and
the Employment Equality Act (1995). In British Columbia from 1970 to
1981, it was very common for all students with disabilities to be educated in
segregated environments or institutions. Tis began to change in 1989 when
the B. C. School Act was revised. Prior to 1989, there had been no changes to
the School Act or Regulations that would ensure an appropriate education for
exceptional children in the least restrictive environment (Leslie & Goguen,
1984, as cited in Siegel & Ladyman, 2000). “Te basic premise in the structure

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

of the new legislation was that all children who were of school age and a resident in the district were entitled to an educational program” that was designed
to develop their individual potential (Siegal & Ladyman, 2000, p. 9). Te
expectation of integration of all students with disabilities in the neighbourhood school as a frst choice as outlined in the School Act—Special Needs
Students Order, Ministerial Order 150/89.
Te Kamloops School District complied with the Ministerial Order but
chose to provide a cascade of services model (Cascade Model) with parental
choice being a deciding factor. From 1994 to 1996, the Ministry Guidelines for
Special Education were revised, and ministerial orders were passed outlining
the defnition of students with special needs for an Individual Education Plan
(IEP).

School District #24/73 (SD24/73)
Mainstreaming in Full Action
Te Tranquille School for the Mentally Retarded provided housing and
education for the individual who lived there until 1970. Te Fitzwater School
educated students with developmental delays from age 6 until they reached
the age of 20.
A teacher at the school, Janice Kypriotis, remembers working there with
fondness, “It was a positive experience and one that I will never forget. I ofen
felt that I learned more from the students that they did from me, regardless of the
challenges presented!” (personal communication, November 15, 2019).
Bob Cowden was a teacher at Fitzwater School in 1972 and later a
vice-principal at Overlander Secondary. He stated that, “the school under Chris
Rose’s leadership was a very bonded group of educators that truly supported one
another in a very rich child-staf environment.” He recalls that Kamloops was
a “lighthouse district in the province of British Columbia and special education
was no exception to that” (personal communication, March 20, 2020).
In 1975, a class of nine Trainable Mentally Retarded (TMR) students
from Fitzwater began to attend a class at Arthur Hatton Elementary School.
Bob Cowden was the teacher who accompanied the class to this Fitzwater
Satellite program. Te model used was one of partial integration (part-time
general education classroom and part-time self-contained classroom). Te

The Cascade Model
 General education

classroom

 General education
classroom with direct or
indirect support
 General education

classroom with pull-out
assistance
 Part-time general

education classroom/
Part-time self-contained classroom
 Full-time

self-contained
classroom

Note the range of services which
are provided or cascade from
one level to the next.
Place the student from the top
down only as far as necessary
(least restrictive), then bottom
to top as far as possible (most
productive).

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

45

Different ways of labelling
students with mental challenges:
TMR—Trainable Mentally
Retarded
EMR—Educable Mentally
Retarded

school already had a class of students with hearing impairments and a remedial class.
Both of these programs involved students with disabilities being educated for part of the day in the regular classroom. Te staf from Arthur Hatton
reported at the time that the students from Fitzwater were calmer and better
behaved when they were integrated into the regular school. Te teachers at
Arthur Hatton who had the Fitzwater students in their class expressed very
positive comments about the program, and they felt that the students in their
classes accepted the Fitzwater students and made them feel welcome (Park,
1976). Tis model of integration was one that the district would use for years
to come.
In addition to Fitzwater, the SD24 had a special class at Barrière
Elementary. Maureen Bigham started teaching that program in 1972. She was
hired to teach a class of Educable Mentally Retarded (EMR) students. She
recalls, “Te class was made up of 14 children from ages 6–16 with a variety of
needs, including one deaf child and one autistic child. One girl, aged 10, was sent
away for a number of days because her parents wanted her sterilized. Children
also ‘disappeared’ from the class as they were sent to the Indian Residential
School in Kamloops” (personal communication, January 13, 2020).

Move to Integration

“I think our district was a
forerunner in regards to
meeting the needs not only
of special needs kids but
also ensuring that the regular
school age population had
an opportunity to get to know
student with specials needs” (C.
Bruce, personal communication,
November 6, 2020).

46

Charlie Bruce, a teacher and school administrator in the district from
1980 to 2011, worked at Fitzwater School. He also remembers integrating the
students from Fitzwater into the district school. “It was really up to the teacher
at that time to make inroads with the regular mainstream educators and that
worked well because the students in the special needs classes had an opportunity
to mix and mingle with typical kids and the typical kids had an opportunity to
mix and mingle with the special needs kids. I think our district was a forerunner
regarding meeting the needs not only of special needs kids but also ensuring that
the regular school age population had an opportunity to mix and mingle with the
special needs kids.” (personal communication, November 6, 2020).
In 1976, with more students being bussed from Tranquille to Fitzwater,
the school district opened the Overlander Training Centre (later renamed
Overlander Secondary School), a Regional Resource Program funded by the
Ministry of Education. Te mandate of Overlander Secondary was to educate
students ages 12–20 who had an IQ under 75. Te school ofered academics,

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

life skills, outdoor education, work experience, physical education, home economics, wood shop, and a drama program.
Te students had an elected students’ council, dances, fundraisers, and
graduation. Te emphasis on life skills meant that the school ofered a full-cafeteria program, wood shop, and work experience. Tese were very similar
programs to those ofered at Tranquille. Tere was also a fully furnished apartment onsite for the students to learn and practise independent living skills.
Te students had a full-time school counsellor and access to a physiotherapist
three days a week. Tere was a bus dedicated to the school and available all
day, any day, for feld trips. Overlander was run like a regular high school and
students attended from the Kamloops and from as far away as the Kootenays.
As one student remarked, “Overlander was good to me” (T. Cuglietta, personal
communication, February 4, 2021).

First Person wording
Means that we refer to the
individual as a person first
and their special education
designation second.
You would say a child with
autism instead of an autistic
child, or a child who is deaf
instead of a deaf child.

Correspondence with the Kamloops Society for
the Mentally Handicapped (Parent Archives, 1988)
CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

47

As a pilot project in 1988, one class from Overlander, accompanied by a
teacher and a teaching assistant, moved to Brocklehurst Secondary. Tis was
the start of integrating Overlander students into local high schools. Shannon
Moore was the teaching assistant who moved from Overlander with the
teacher, Bobbi Doree, and 15 students into a small classroom just of the cafeteria at Brock Secondary. Shannon remembers, “We developed a mainstreaming model. Students were taught their academics in the resource room and then
we integrated in areas where they would have success such as PE, Foods, Drama,
and Art.” She remembers that it was great for the students to experience learning in a regular high school, but some of the teachers did not know what to do
with the students in their classes. “It was a challenge dealing with staf who
thought we were only at the school for a short amount of time. Te regular students embraced our students and really looked out for them. Finding the right ft
for a student in an integrated setting sometimes posed a challenge” (personal
communication, May 4, 2020).
Ross
Spina,
principal
of
Overlander Secondary School and
Fitzwater School from 1982 to 1987,
remembers, “Basically the philosophy of
the time was to try and fnd a program
that would best meet the learning needs
of the student. So, even though the
schools were basically segregated environments, we had some wonderful services. Unfortunately, many of the services were lost when Overlander closed,
because as soon as you diversifed and
moved away from centralized services,
you lost the resources that went with it”
(personal communication, November
6, 2019).
Ross Spina provided the leadership that responded to the government’s mandate to educate
Ross Spina, Principal of
Overlander, congratulates
students with disabilities in
graduate Tony Cuglietta 1987
their neighbourhood school.
(McLean, 1987)
48

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

In 1988, he formed a task force to examine how to best educate students with
disabilities in an integrated environment. Ross said that he saw a “wonderful
opportunity for us to do things diferently, and engaging the community in the
conversation, and engaging educators in the conversation as part of the process.”
He credits the parents of the students with special needs as being a driving
force behind changes in education. “Te philosophy of spending on education
and pedagogy in many ways have been guided by the voice of the parents. Tey
were not satisfed with certain ways that things were happening and they continued to lobby and pressure and advocate for their children to move to more
inclusive environments” (personal communication, November 6, 2019).

The Challenges of Transforming Systems
and Changing Attitudes

Marilyn Hogg McLean, PE teacher, with Top
Athletes of 1987 Tracy Jo Russell and Tony Cuglietta
(McLean, 1987)

Louise Oyler, retired teacher, is very familiar with the role that parent
advocacy played in integrating students with disabilities. In 1979, she wanted
CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

49

Down syndrome is a genetic
disorder caused when abnormal
cell division results in an
extra full or partial copy of
chromosome 21. This extra
genetic material causes the
developmental changes and
physical features of Down
syndrome. Down syndrome
varies in severity among
individuals, causing lifelong
intellectual disability and
developmental delays. It’s
the most common genetic
chromosomal disorder and
cause of learning disabilities in
children (Mayo Clinic, 2021, par.
1, 2).

50

her daughter Shawna to go to kindergarten with her friends at the neighbourhood school. Despite being intellectually disabled with Down Syndrome,
Shawna, at age fve, knew how to read and write, she was independent in all
areas of self-care, had no health problems, and was very athletic. She was
friends with many children in the neighbourhood and could walk to school
with her older brother. Louise was told by the school district, “We have
Fitzwater School for children like Shawna. She should go there” (personal communication, February 4, 2020). Tis was not the answer Louise wanted. She
persevered until she convinced the school board and superintendent to “Just
give it a try.” Shawna became the frst student in the school district with an
intellectual disability to attend her neighbourhood school. While at Beattie
Elementary, Shawna made friends that she still sees today. She joined in activities and was very much like any other primary student.
Te school principal at the time was Ross Dickson. He recalls that it was
his frst experience having a child with a disability in the school. He remembers, “With the insistence of the teacher and the encouragement of the parent,
we got an aide for the student. It was wonderful and the student did very well.”
However, when the student reached Grade 3, the teacher was insistent that
she should attend the class for children with special needs across town. Mr.
Dickson remembers that, as a relatively new principal, “I was very inexperienced in working with an advocacy group of parents on one side of the table,
and the insistent teacher on the other who had an entirely diferent philosophy
of what was best for the child. It was more about what was best for the teacher,
not the child” (personal communication, August 11, 2019). In the end, Louise
“bowed to pressure” and enrolled Shawna in a special class in another part
of the district. Louise recalls that, at every transition point, she had to meet
with the school board and fght for an inclusive education for her daughter.
Shawna graduated from Kamloops Senior Secondary afer 13 years in the
public school system. Unlike her same-aged peers with a disability, most of
that time was spent in an inclusive environment.
Dean Regnier was a student with special needs in SD24 from 1978 to
1989. He remembers, “I was ofen the only student with a physical disability in
the general education classroom, and there were no teaching assistants like we
have now” (personal communication, August 7, 2020). His teacher at Pineridge
Elementary School, Cora Jones, recalled that Dean was the frst student she

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

ever taught who had a disability. She recalls not knowing how to teach him
and that there was no support to help him with his education. She talked to
Dean about this when he was an adult and he told her, “Don’t worry about it.
I had to teach everyone how to teach me” (C. Jones, personal communication,
January 18, 2020).

Is There a Place for Segregated Settings Within an
Inclusive Education Philosophy?
In 1981, a new program funded by the provincial government was established in Kamloops. It was called the Regional Education Centre and was a
program for students in the region who had severe learning disabilities. Te
program served nine school districts, and students from out of town boarded
with Kamloops families for the time they attended the program. Maureen
Bigham was one of the teachers and remembers, “Te program was generously
funded and had two teachers, a speech and language pathologist, a support
worker, an administrator, and a secretary. We worked with 12 students at a time
for approximately half the school year. We met with the staf at the referring
school prior to the students coming and would integrate them back to their classrooms a few times before their return. We had many successes. We had a number
of students who were supported with their learning in this program and went on
to professional careers as adults” (personal communication, January 13, 2020).
Te program disbanded in 1989 due to increasing cost, but the Kamloops
School District established a similar program for district students and ran the
program on a zonal model until 1994 when it was shut down due to an emphasis on providing diverse educational services in each neighbourhood school.

The Cost of Doing It Right or Inclusion for All,
Regardless
In 1989, the provincial government, under fnancial and parental pressure, closed all segregated regional programs that it had been funding. Neil
Toews, Director of Special Education Services from 1977 to 1988 recalls that,
“Just before I retired in 1988, a member of the Ministry of Education came to see
me and announced they were changing their approach to special education. Tey
were moving toward total integration and would no longer fund regional programs. I remember a sense of loss and wondering how the new mandate would

Zonal Model
The school district was divided
into five school zones (South
Kamloops, Brocklehurst,
Westsyde, North Kamloops,
and Rural Schools). A team
of specialist including a
Speech/Language Pathologist,
District Counsellor, and
School Psychologist worked
collaboratively with the teacher,
LAT, principal, and parents to
provide service to children,
within each of the zones.

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

51

The Full Inclusion Model
means that all children,
regardless of their abilities,
belong in their neighbourhood
schools.

The Kamloops Society for
Community Inclusion (KSCI)
KSCI, formerly known as
the Kamloops Society for
Community Living and then
Inclusion Kamloops Society, was
formed in 1956 by a group of
concerned parents who wanted
an alternative for their children
at a time when children who
were born with developmental
disabilities were excluded from
the regular school system. Since
then, the Society has served the
needs of people with disabilities
and their families through
a wide range of community
activities, projects, and services.
See www.incusionkamloops.ca
for more information.

52

work out” (personal communication, March 19, 2020).
Te integration of students with disabilities in Kamloops was not without its challenges. Dean Paravantes, a district principal and later an Assistant
Superintendent in the school district, remembers that, in 1989, integration
moved from being an exception to an expectation. However, that expectation
was not necessarily accompanied by increased training for teachers or support
to students. He said that he would hear about something that someone was
doing in the province, “But it was like we were all doing adaptations, but not
talking to each other. It was almost like a jazz concert, where everybody gets the
melody and then you improvise” (personal communication, March 20, 2020).
His concern regarding the lack of monetary support for integration from the
province was echoed by other school administrators, teachers, parents, and
education assistants.
While the concept of integration was supported by the district, it
remained focused on providing the best education for each student in the
most supportive environment. Tere was a concern that it became easier for
the Ministry of Education to spend less per student than when the province
supported segregated, regional programs. Tis resulted in SD24 spending
money from their reserves, or wherever the money could be found, to ensure
appropriate support for students with special needs.
Chris Rose, who was the principal of Fitzwater and Overlander and later
at two other schools in the district and who has been a strong advocate for
students with special needs, felt strongly that the government moved to a full
inclusion model because it would be a cheaper way to educate students with
special needs. As a principal in the regular system, he found it difcult to fully
include all students, “Tere must be a continuum of services because the regular
classroom teacher can’t begin to handle all of the diferences” (personal communication, July 25, 2019).

Supporting Teachers, Teacher Assistants, and Students
During the Inclusion Process
As SD24 moved toward educating students in the neighbourhood school
as a frst choice, there was an integration team available which served as a
resource to schools from 1989 to 1993. Te team members each had expertise
in one of the following areas: vision impairment, hard of hearing, speech/language, special education resource development, and physiotherapy. Tey

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

worked together and were part of the Student Support Services division at the
district level. Teir job was to help ensure the successful inclusion of students
and to provide professional development for teachers and teaching assistants.
However, many teachers recall that it was a very steep learning curve and that
there was little help for them in the classroom. Cora Jones stated, “It seemed as
if integration was mandated by the government and was done with very little
funding or forethought” (personal communication, January 18, 2020).

The difference between
integration and inclusion
is that integration refers
to the process of educating
children with special needs
in mainstream classrooms,
while inclusion involves a much
deeper level of participation
for students with disabilities in
general education activities.
Integration requires the disabled
learner to fit into mainstream
classes, while inclusion seeks to
adapt the mainstream class
to accommodate the needs of
the disabled learner.

Kamloops School Playground for the Handicapped

Item # I-25529 Courtesy Royal BC Museum Note: 1977 Fitzwater
School Playground with North Kamloops Secondary in the background
Pat Lainsbury, who was a counsellor and district school psychologist,
remembers that the Learning Assistant teachers (LAT) were a vital link in
ensuring students with special needs received a good education in the neighbourhood school, “Te LATs became the cornerstone in their schools” (personal
communication, March 28, 2020). Pat was also the President of the local chapter of Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) for 18 years. Tis group of
educators and community members met once a month in the evenings and
provided extensive training in many aspects of teaching students with special
needs for anyone who was interested. Tey also provided bursaries for summer
camp, gave out alternative communication devices, and hosted conferences
CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

53

with internationally known speakers. CEC provided much needed training for
teachers and teaching assistants, which was not available to educators in the
school district due to budget limitations.

Support for Indigenous Students
Carol Gustafson was one of the Learning Assistant teachers who made
a diference in the lives of the Indigenous students. She developed and coordinated the S.O.L.V.E.D. Program (Student Oral Language Vocabulary
Experiences and Development). Tis program was an intervention for at-risk
Indigenous students in Kindergarten and Grade 1. Tis group began when Iris
Nelson, a speech pathologist, and Carol noticed that many of the Indigenous
students entered school at a disadvantage because of their lagging English language skills. Tis was also noticed by Gordon Bell, an elementary principal.
When he mentioned this in a conversation with Carol, she had an idea for
what could be done to ensure more equal footing and success for these students. Te S.O.L.V.E.D. program launched in the school district in 1992. Te
program was funded by the First Nation Council and SD24.
It began in fve schools, including the Sk’elep School of Excellence, and
later grew to be in 10 other schools in the district before it was discontinued
in 2012. Under Carol’s guidance, program manuals were produced, and First
Nations Support Workers (FNSWs) were trained to deliver the program for
30 minutes a day, fve days a week. Each school had a retired primary school
teacher who became the teacher mentor for the FNSWs. Careful records were
kept demonstrating student progress. Te program concentrated on concept
development as well as English expressive and receptive language. As Iris
Nelson said, “Te program taught students to use the English language as a tool.
It gave them the ability to have their own voice and use that voice” (personal
communication, May 16, 2020). Te goal of the program was that all students
would be meeting reading expectations by the end of Grade 3. Te records
show that many students achieved that goal.

54

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

School Amalgamation—More Pressure on Special
Needs Support Services
Te amalgamation of the Kamloops School District and the North
Tompson School District in 1996 created another fnancial struggle to meet
the needs of special needs students. Te new district, Kamloops-Tompson
#73, had to support to an increased number of students with special needs in
a large geographic area.

Stsmemelt Village at Tranquille (Bethell, 2020) Note: “Stsmemelt” is
a traditional Shuswap word meaning “Child of One Family”

Community Resources
In the mid-1970s, Tranquille built “Stsmemelt Village,” a sprawling, mazelike, single story housing development of small apartments designed with the
goals of assisting young residents in living independently and to eventually
transition into group homes. Stsmemelt is a Shuswap or Secwepemc word for
“Child of One Family” (First Voices, 2020). Te buildings that are still standing
on the Tranquille Fresh Farms property look more like an Elementary School.
Georgia Ross, a social worker with the Ministry of Children and Families
(MCF) for many years in the Kamloops area, recalls that before Tranquille
closed in 1984 there were already 25 care homes started in Kamloops with up
to 17 individuals in each home. Tranquille started their own smaller homes,
generally with 4–6 people in each home. Tis move from a segregated, institutional setting to an integrated community setting resulted in more services
being provided by the MCF—such as day programs, a dual diagnosis team,
CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

55

respite hours for parents and care givers, supported employment programs,
and more training for social workers. She recalls this as being a time of close
working relationships with the school district, “We had a supportive relationship with the school district, marked by good communication” (personal communication, February 12, 2020).

Parent Groups
Te Fitzwater School Service Association was formed in 1980 by a group
of parents to support the needs of the various district programs for students
with special needs. Tis group of dedicated parents met regularly to raise
funds and advocate for programs. At one time, the society was successful in
procuring a bus from the Variety Club. Tis bus was used for many years to
take students with special needs on outings and adventures.

SD73 Partnerships

Communication between support services and the schools in the
1980s (Parent Archives, ca. 1980)
56

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

Te school district also had a purchase agreement with the Child
Development Centre (CDC). Under this agreement, any child who had
attended a supported day care program and was fve years old was eligible for
a year of service at the CDC. Tis meant that they delayed the start of kindergarten for one year. Children attending the CDC received specialized teaching, physio and occupational therapy, as well as speech therapy. Afer one year,
the students then attended their neighbourhood school as a Kindergarten
student.
When Giant Steps West (programming
for students diagnosed with autism) opened
in 1989, a similar purchase of service agreement was signed with the school district, but
the age was increased (ages 5–18) to serve students for full days or part day programs.
Another community partner was the
Tompson Nicola Family Resource Society.
Tis organization was founded in 1991 and
served the needs of students with special
needs from birth to age fve and their families,
as well as the students who were eligible for
the purchase of services for the Kindergarten
year. Tis early intervention was very impor- Kamloops Society for
Community Living
tant to students and families.
In 1991, Insight Support Services pro- Workshops 1998
Announcement
vided afer-school care and family support
(Parent Archives, 1998
to students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
(ASD) and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
(FASD). Te staf at Insight also ofered consultations to the school district
and helped to develop closer working relationships with the school program
and the families they served. Te advocacy role played by Insight for the learning needs of their clients endorsed the district’s development of appropriate
programs in the move toward inclusion.

Autism, or autism spectrum
disorder (ASD), refers to a
broad range of conditions
characterized by challenges with
social skills, repetitive behaviors
and speech, and nonverbal
communication.

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

57

Other Community Programs
Special Olympics British Columbia was incorporated in 1980. Kamloops
started one of the frst programs in 1981. Tis organization provided sports
skill development and team play for individuals with an intellectual disability
from ages 11–adult. From 1981 to 2000, the programs ofered were swimming,
track and feld, foor hockey, soccer, sofball, rhythmic gymnastics, 5-pin
bowling, and powerlifing.
Te Kamloops Society for the Mentally Handicapped (which later
merged with Inclusion Kamloops, B. C.) was a great community resource for
families and individuals with a mental handicap. Tey ran day program at
their sheltered workshops (Rainbow Ribbons, Paper Chase, etc.) for individuals over the age of 18 and provided work experience placements for schoolaged children with mental handicaps. Te society also held workshops on a
variety of topics and ran several group homes. Similarly, the Kamloops Youth
Resources Society worked with the school district to provide a variety of programs, services, and living options for students with behaviour disorders.

The End of an Era for the Kamloops-Thompson School
District
At the close of the 1990s, the Kamloops-Tompson School District #73
(SD73) was determined to provide the best education for students with special needs and was working toward supporting administrators and school
staf with information and strategies for success. Te district continued to
fnd money in the budget to support the programs they ofered that were not
covered by the Ministry of Education Supplemental Funding Allocation for
students with special needs. Te district welcomed the March 1999 Special
Education Review.
Te review team was looking for suggestions to improve programs and
remove barriers to increase success. Tis review set the stage for the changes
in special education that came about with the dawn of the new millennium.

58

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

Indigenous Perspective
During this timeframe, a major funding switch took place. First Nations
(FN) children used to be funded with special needs, lumped together. Tarry
Grieve, (former SD73 Superintendent) was part of the 1973 Blue Book,
which spoke about both the Red Paper (about giving First Nation’s control
over FN education) and the White Paper (a reaction to the Red Paper). In
the Blue Book, the committee recommended the separation of funding of FN
and Special Education. Later, in 1987, the Sullivan Paper outlined this process, which took efect afer the 1989 Royal Proclamation. According to Dede
DeRose, “Tis group worked closely with the School District [SD#73] under
Nathan’s [Nathan Matthew] leadership to ensure that targeted funding was not
used for special education support, as it had been initially. Teir job was to also
ensure that Indigenous students not only received Aboriginal Education Support,
but also had good special education programming support like all student in the
school district” (personal communication, January 2, 2020).
Tarry Grieve was integral to implementing these changes in SD73. DeRose
notes, “[He] was one of the frst superintendents to understand the importance
of it and implemented a genuine partnership with Indigenous communities
(including the Métis and urban groups), all the while ensuring that Indigenous
students with special needs were also diagnosed and provided support. Tose
transition years were interesting!” (personal communication, January 2, 2020).

1999 Special Education
Review
The review was Commissioned
by B. C. Ministry of Education to
assess:
• How special education policy
was being implemented
• How resources were being
used
• How well accountability
systems were working
• How effective existing
programs were working

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

59

Chapter Contributors



















Bigham, Maureen (Retired teacher)
Bruce, Charles (Retired principal)
Cowden, Robert (Retired principal)
Cuglietta, Tony (Overlander Secondary Graduate)
DeRose, Dede (Retired principal and member of Esket, Secwepemc
Nation)
Dickson, Ross (Retired principal and former Assistant Superintendent)
Gustafson, Carol (Retired Learning Assistance Teacher)
Jones, Cora (Retired teacher)
Kypriotis, Janice (Retired teacher)
Lainsbury, Patricia (Retired district school psychologist)
Moore, Shannon (Retired Certifed Education Assistant, CEA)
Nelson, Iris (Retired district speech pathologist)
Oyler, Louise (Retired teacher and parent of a child with special needs)
Paravantes, Dean (Retired principal and former Assistant
Superintendent)
Regnier, Dean, (SD73 graduate, NorKam Secondary Library Assistant)
Rose, Christopher (Retired principal)
Ross, Georgia (Retired social worker)
Spina, Ross (Retired principal and former Assistant Superintendent)
Toews, Neil (Retired principal and former Director of Instruction)

References
B. C. School Act, Ministerial Order 150/89. (1989 & am. 1995, 2007). Special Needs
Students Order. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/education-training/k-12/
administration/legislation-policy/manual-of-school-law/school-act-ministerial-orders
First Voices. (2020). Secwepemc Words. https://www.frstvoices.com/explore/FV/sections/Data/Secwepemc/Secwepemctsin/Secwepemc/learn/words?page=1&pageSize=10
Mayo Clinic. (2021). Down Syndrome. Patient Care and Health Information. https://
www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/down-syndrome/symptoms-causes/
syc-20355977
McLean, M. (1987). Marilyn Hogg McLean, PE teacher with Top Athlete of 1987 Tracy
Jo Russell and Tony Cuglietta [Photograph]. Personal collection, Kamloops, B. C.

60

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

McLean, M. (1987). Ross Spina, Principal of Overlander congratulates graduate Tony
Cuglietta 1987 [Photograph]. Personal collection, Kamloops, B. C.
Parent Archives. (1998). Kamloops Society for Community Living Workshops 1998
Announcement [Paper poster]. Kamloops Society for the Mentally Handicapped
Parent Archives (Brown box, Folder 12), Kamloops, B. C.
Parent Archives. (ca. 1980). Communication between support services and schools in
the 1980s [Various letters]. Kamloops Society for the Mentally Handicapped
Parent Archives (Brown box, Folder 12), Kamloops, B. C.
Parent Archives. (1988). Correspondence with Te Kamloops Society for the Mentally
Handicapped [Letter]. Kamloops Society for the Mentally Handicapped Parent
Archives (Brown box, Folder 12), Kamloops, B. C.
Park, S. (1976). A report on the integration of the Fitzwater Satellite TMR Class into
Arthur Hatton Elementary [unpublished master’s thesis]. University of British
Columbia.
Royal B. C. Museum. (1977). Kamloops School Playground for the Handicapped [Photograph]. (Item # I-25529), Royal B. C. Museum, B. C. Archives, Victoria, B. C.
Siegel, L., & Ladyman, S. (2000). A review of special education in British Columbia. B.
C. Ministry of Education. http://www.featbc.org/downloads/review.pdf

Additional Resources

Inclusive B. C. (2021). Inclusive education resources. https://inclusionbc.org/resourcetypes/inclusive-education/
Naylor, C. (2005, November 17). Inclusion in British Columbia’s public schools: Always
a journey, never a destination? [Paper presentation]. Canadian Teachers’ Federation annual conference, Ottawa, Ont. https://bctf.ca/diversity/reports/InclusionJourney/report.pdf

CHPT. 4. SOLIDARITY IN SPECIAL EDUCATION: ADVOCACY, RIGHTS, AND REFORM (1970–2000)

61

C h a p te r

5

The Full Inclusion
Movement: One Size Fits All
(2000–present)
Kim Calder Stegemann

Key Concepts
 Universal Design for Learning (UDL) becomes popular
 Response to Intervention (RTI) is used for programming
 Full inclusion for all children means the reduction of any specialized

programs

 2000—P. L. 94-142 becomes IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities

Education Act)

 2006—Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities adopted

by the United Nations

 2006—SET-BC is established to provide technological assistance for

students with exceptionalities

 2008—Canadian government formally apologies to Indigenous peo-

ples for the treatment during residential schooling

CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

63

The Full Inclusion Movement: One Size Fits All
(2000–present)
Kim Calder Stegemann

Introduction

Te 1900s brought many social and political changes that directly
impacted the perception and treatment of individuals with learning diferences. Te new millennium (2000) was no diferent; it was flled with more
challenges to our beliefs about those who are diferent or from a minority
group. In a pluralistic society, and specifcally in Canada which encourages
celebrating diversity, the boundaries of obligation have been tested.

Public Law 94-142 - https://
administrative.laws.com/publiclaw-94-142
United Nations Convention
on the Rights of Person with
Disabilities - https://www.
un.org/ development/desa/
disabilities/ convention-onthe-rights-of-persons-withdisabilities.html

Historical Context
Te new millennium meant hope and the expectation of a rebirth or
starting anew. Tis is evidenced when the original U. S. Public Law 94-142
was renamed in 2000 to IDEA—Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act. Tere was more than a change of name, but also the addition of more
rights and responsibilities. Another example of beginning to “right a wrong”
was seen in Canada in 2008 when the federal government formally apologized
to Indigenous peoples for their mistreatment during the days of residential
schooling with national reconciliation. Yet one more example of confrming a
commitment to fair treatment was the 2006 United Nations Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities which stated that all children should
have access to inclusive, quality, free education in their community with the
necessary support to help enable them to reach their potential.

New Pedagogical Frameworks—UDL and RTI
Te 21st century also saw the emergence of new paradigms in which to
provide services for diverse learners. Replacing the service delivery model of
the 1970s and 1980s (Cascade Model), which was a continuum of services,
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Response to Intervention (RTI)
64

CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

became frameworks that general and special educators could use to adapt
instruction. A foundational assumption of UDL is that any difculties that a
learner encounters are not because of inherent defcits, but rather the result of
problems with curriculum delivery. “It is therefore incumbent upon the educator to make pedagogical adjustments so that all lessons are ‘accessible’ to all
students” (Calder Stegemann & Aucoin, 2018, p. 27). RTI is a framework, similar to the Cascade Model, which outlines tiers of supports for students. At the
primary tier, all students are exposed to the core curriculum using principles
of UDL and diferentiation of instruction. Only when that level of adaptation
is not successful would a secondary tier of support be provided. Te model
assumes that only 1–5% of students require the fnal, tertiary tier of support.

UDL Guidelines [Cropped Image] (Cast, 2021)
Te optimism did not last, however, as the political and economic climate began to change. In North America, following the stock market crash in
2008, there was an increased concern about budgets, which also meant an
increase in labour issues. Te philosophical and moral imperatives of social
justice were overshadowed by economic uncertainty. Neo-liberalism was
replaced with a populist sentiment. Today, there is a notable tension between
these two forces.
To manage this tension, parents of
children with special needs looked elsewhere for support. Community resources
and programs emerged, as did private services and charter schools.

RTI Tiers of Support
(Browns Education
Consulting, 2020)

CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

65

School District #73 (SD73)
Ambiguity in Definition and Policy
Te optimism of the new millennium was observed in British Columbia,
particularly on the heels of the Review of Special Education in B. C. document. Te recommendations formed the template for special education and
for the movement “toward an inclusive education system in which students
with special needs are fully participating members of a community of learners” (Siegel & Ladyman, 2000, p. 40). Te term “meaningful participation” is
not entirely clear, and the government’s defnition of inclusion was modifed
somewhat, stating that the “practice of inclusion is not necessarily synonymous with integration and goes beyond placement to include meaningful participation and the promotion of interaction with others” (B. C. Ministry of
Education, 2016, p. v). Further, there were no specifc guidelines for the school
district to follow in order to achieve educational inclusion. “SD73 encouraged
a full inclusion policy most of the time, . . . [and the] ideal was that students
should attend school full-time, if possible, and they should be in the [general
education] classroom, if possible” (anonymous, personal communication,
October 23, 2019). However, although SD73 encouraged a full inclusion
model (for the most part), there were obstacles to achieving this ideal.
SD73 has attempted to provide “wrap
around” services, which have been mainly
successful, with most teachers having the attitude that they need to adapt their pedagogy to
meet the needs of the students (like in the UDL
approach). Tere remain “a few educators who
feel that students need to adapt to what they are
doing, instead of the educator adapting to the
needs of the student” (G. Pearce, personal communication, March 20, 2020).

Cover of Special
Education Review
Document

(Seigel &Ladyman, 2000
66

CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

Fiscal Challenges and Labour Unrest Hamper
Implementation
As with worldwide events, the optimism was also soon overshadowed
with fscal concerns. Te Ministry of Children and Family (MCF) published a
strategy manual for supporting individuals with disabilities, given the fnancial burden posed by deinstitutionalization. “In year 2000, we are now faced
with a new challenge of how to sustain the support services for people with
developmental disabilities . . .” (MCF/Community Resources Management
Committee, 2000, p. 5). Te next year, that same ministry foated a discussion
paper, again warning that funding could not support the growing number of
clients needing services (Ministry of Children & Family Development
[MCFD], 2001). Te discussion paper called for a transfer of involvement and
responsibility from the government back to families, caregivers, and communities. “It is simply too expensive to be responding to every community need
through professional intervention” (MCFD, 2001, p. 5), but stating that it was
also changing from “disenfranchising and disempowering” individuals with
additional needs and their support teams. Tis harkens back to the comment
made by Chris Rose (chapter 4) that the government moved to a full inclusion
model because it was a cheaper way to educate students with special learning
needs.
Indeed, the B. C. government
attempted to address increasing education and social service costs by eliminating the class size and composition regulations. In January 2002, the provincial
government imposed a new contract on
teachers, removing previous provisions
related to class size and composition,
Story of the 2005 B.C.
Teachers’ Strike (Dobbin, n.d.) and also prohibiting the issues from
being part of any future contract negotiations. More and more children with special needs were included in general
education classrooms. Te breaking point came in October of 2005 when,
provincially, teachers engaged in job action, primarily to address concerns of
class size and composition. Essentially, this was a cry of caution and concern
about the increased expectations of general education teachers to manage the

CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

67

Social inclusion means that
students with unique needs are
included as part of the general
education classroom, with sameaged peers, with the goal of
social skill development for the
student with special needs and
to increase acceptance among
the non-special needs students.

programming, instruction, and assessment of a very diverse student body
(including those with special learning needs).
Tough the B. C. Supreme Court ruled in April 2011 that it was unconstitutional of the government to remove class size and composition from bargaining, the changes did not occur until afer a second teachers’ strike in 2014,
with one key issue again being class size and composition. “Teachers are feeling
overwhelmed and responsible for things that are way beyond their capacity to
manage” (J. Neden, personal communication, March 20, 2020).
While the legislation of class size and composition has been restored, it
has not always served the needs of learners with special needs. For example,
“With limits of only three students with special needs per class, students in
Resource Rooms are ofen not able to join high school classes for social inclusion
because the numbers are already maxed out” (anonymous, personal communication, April 17, 2020).

More Schooling Options and Support for All Students

Kamloops School of the Arts (Bethell, 2021)
Over the past 20 years, new options for schooling within SD73 began
to emerge, such as the Kamloops School of the Arts, the Sports Academy,
and the Science and Math School, in addition to the already existing French
Immersion programs, street school, and alternate programs. Many of those
interviewed for this book stated a need for these and more options to be available for ALL students.
68

CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

SD73 reduced the number of segregated classrooms from 14 to 10, eliminating Behavioural Resource
Rooms but maintaining Resource Rooms for students
with signifcant cognitive delays. One former educator
noted that, despite the provincial funding cuts, SD73
“really protected” (anonymous, personal communication, October 23, 2019) special services and supports
such as school psychologists and behavioural supports.
SD73 is “one of the few districts lef in the province that
still have Resource Rooms” (anonymous, personal communication, July 26, 2019). However, Learning
Assistance Resource Teachers (LARTs) were expected
to provide the necessary support for teachers and students to successfully practise inclusion for all other
Bert Edwards
special needs students.
Science and
One support that was developed within the provTechnology
ince, and which SD73 accesses, is SET-B. C. (which
School (Calder
Stegemann, 2021) provides technological assistance for students with
exceptionalities). Technology has been critical for special needs learners, but, as one LART experienced, the within-district assistance is not always readily available. “I had a huge bank of computers and when
they would go down . . . Tat could take almost a year [to get someone to fx the
problem]” (J. Neden, personal communication, March 20, 2020).

SET B.C. Website Image (SET-B.C., n.d.)
Supports for classroom teachers has been a focus for SD73, dating back
to the late 1980s. To focus on students with behavioural problems, several
inclusion support teachers were hired to support general education teachers
CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

69

adapt to increased inclusion and learn the principles of UDL. Although more
training of general and special education teachers is always desirable, there
has been a notable increase in teacher knowledge on how to address diverse
learning needs.

Still More Needed to Make Inclusion Work
Despite the allotment of resources to students and teachers in an age of
inclusive education, most of those interviewed stated that more resources and
supports were required. Resources needed range from services like speech
therapy, to additional Certifed Educational Assistants (CEAs), to increased
LARTs to manage the large caseloads. As parent Jamie Tomlinson stated,
“We’ve gone backwards . . . My biggest concern would be the lack of supports for
special needs students” (personal communication, January 5, 2020). Another
parent stated that because of a lack of specialized services, her son worked “on
the same goals for six years . . . if you’re only seeing them [support service personnel] once a month, you can’t really do anything” (anonymous, personal communication, November 6, 2019). Kyle Leask, a student who was in full inclusion in SD73, switched to a private setting in his Grade 8 year and stated that
“[I] fnally got the supports that I needed, along with an acknowledgement of
learning diferences, and also the ability to do blended [face-to-face and online]
learning” (personal communication, November 22, 2019).

Community Resources

Insight Support Services (Calder Stegemann, 2021)
70

CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

Private and community resources were certainly available before the full
inclusion movement but continued to emerge as parents looked elsewhere for
programming. Services and options within Kamloops are now an integral part
of many inclusive programs. For example, one teacher noted that it was essential for her to “forge connections” and that she has “pretty robust community
involvement” (anonymous, personal communication, April 17, 2020) which
includes the local newspaper (to do paper route delivery), gymnastics clubs,
and even the neighbourhood Starbucks. “We learned to work as a team with
community partners,” noted a former educator (anonymous, personal communication, October 23, 2019).

Chris Rose Terapy Centre for Autism
Webpage Image (Chris Rose Centre, 2021)
Te Chris Rose Centre for Terapy (formerly Giant Steps West) and
Insight Support Services are among the key partners with SD73, in addition to MCFD, Child and Youth Mental Health (CYMH), local pediatricians/
psychiatrists, Parkview Centre for students with extreme behavioural and
emotional challenges, the Child Development Centre, the Children’s Terapy
and Family Resource Centre (formerly the Tompson Nicola Family Resource
Society), and Community Living Kamloops (formerly the Kamloops Society
for the Mentally Handicapped). Julie Chambers, director of Insight Support
Services, which provides educational programming for students with autism,
afrms the need for community services. “It’s pretty tough to meet the needs
of some complex learners in institutional environments” (personal communication, August 21, 2019). Given the challenging and complex composition of
today’s classrooms, you “can’t do inclusion on your own” (Greg Pearce, personal communication, March 20, 2020). Tis sentiment was further afrmed
CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

71

in 2006 by Assistant Superintendent of Student Services, Marilyn (Hogg)
McLean, “Te education of all children must be seen as a partnership, with
each partner assuming prime responsibility for their core mandate” (School
District No. 73, 2006, p. 6).

Indigenous Perspective
Once funding for First Nations students was removed from Special
Education, the development of Aboriginal Education (curriculum and support) could develop. Today, SD73 has a robust Aboriginal Education department, providing programming for all elementary schools in the district. One
such initiative is the Day of the Sucwentwecw.
“The First People’s Principles of Learning are incorporated into the
content of the B. C. Curriculum, as are the Truth and Reconciliation
Calls to Action which call us to ‘integrate Indigenous knowledge
and teaching methods into classrooms.’
The Day of Sucwentwecw (Acknowledging One Another) is an
annual initiative held on April 7 each year, to recognize and
celebrate the Secwepemc People (Secwepemcul’ecw) and other
Aboriginal people residing within the Secwepemc Territory.” (School
District #73, 2018, par. 1,2)

Summary
Te purpose of inclusion is to allow equal and fair opportunities for
learning and growth of all students, regardless of disability. Students want
to feel included. In some cases, inclusion has gone fairly smoothly. At other
times, students can be bullied, teased, or simply lack a friend group. One
teacher commented that since attending the semi-segregated Resource Room,
some of her students have found a friend group for the frst time. “Many of
[my students] are aware of their challenges or diferences or uniqueness, and
they don’t love the feeling of being in a room where they don’t understand what
exactly is happening, either curriculum wise or socially” (anonymous, personal
communication, April 17, 2020).

72

CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

Noting that diference and diversity is “okay” and should be accepted,
Kyle commented that “. . . everyone is still the same . . . but . . . people learn
diferently, people look diferent, live diferent, but we’re still human” (personal
communication, November 22, 2019); therefore, having diferent learning
options makes sense. Tat has been the legacy of SD73—to include all students in the general education classroom, as appropriate, but also to provide
a variety of choices for learning that ultimately better meet the needs of ALL
students.

Chapter Contributors











Anonymous (Parent of a child with special needs)
Anonymous (Learning Assistance Resource Teacher, LART)
Chambers, Julie (Director of Insight Support Services)
Churchley, Chris (Retired Learning Assistance Resource Teacher,
LART)
Kempthorne, Barb (Parent of a child with special needs)
Leask, Kyle (Former SD73 student)
Neden, Janice (Retired SD73 LART, BCTF retired staf, semi-retired
teacher working in the Nanaimo SD)
Pearce, Greg (Current district school psychologist)
Price, Erin (Current Resource Room teacher)
Tomlinson, Jamie (Parent of a child with special needs)

References
B. C. Ministry of Education. (2016). Special education services: A manual of policies,
procedures and guidelines. B. C. Ministry of Education. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/
assets/gov/education/administration/kindergarten-to-grade-12/inclusive/special_ed_policy_manual.pdf
Bethell, M. (2021). Kamloops School of the Arts [Photograph]. Personal collection,
Kamloops, B. C.
Browns Education Consulting. (2020). RTI 3 Tiers of Support. http://brownseducationconsulting.com/faq/
Calder Stegemann, K. & Aucoin, A. (2018). Teoretical frameworks: Universal Design
for Leaning and Response to Intervention. In K. Calder Stegemann & A. Aucoin
(Eds.). Inclusive education: Stories of success and hope in a Canadian context (Ch.
3, pp. 25–35). Pearson.

CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

73

Calder Stegemann, K. (2021). Bert Edwards Science and Technology School [Photograph]. Personal collection, Kamloops, B. C.
Calder Stegemann, K. (2021). Insight Support Services [Photograph]. Personal collection, Kamloops, B. C.
CAST. (2021). UDL guidelines [cropped image]. https://udlguidelines.cast.org/
Chris Rose Centre. (2021). Chris Rose Terapy Centre for Autism [Webpage Image].
chrisrosecentre.org
Dobbin, M. (n.d.). Te Story of the 2005 BC Teachers’ Strike [Photo of title page]. “I
am the BCTF”—Te story of the 2005 B C teachers’ strike. B. C.: British Columbia Teachers’ Federation. https://www.bctf.ca/uploadedFiles/HistoryMuseum/
Rooms/Bargaining/I_Am_the_BCTF.pdf
MCF/Community Resources Management Committee. (2000). Resource management
strategy for community living service delivery [Booklet]. Auxiliary to the Mentally
Handicapped Parent Group (Brown Box, Folder 1). Calder Stegemann Personal
Collection, Kamloops, B. C.
Ministry of Children and Family Develop. (MCFD). (2001). Discussion paper on community living services [Handout]. Auxiliary to the Mentally Handicapped Parent
Group (Brown Box, Folder 16). Calder Stegemann Personal Collection, Kamloops, B. C.
School District No. 73. (2018). Day of the Sucwentwecw. https://www.sd73.bc.ca/en/
schools-programs/day-of-sucwentwecw.aspx
School District No. 73. (2006). Student support services handbook. SD73.
SET-B.C. (n.d.). SET-B.C. [Website Image]. https://www.setbc.org/
Siegel, L., & Ladyman, S. (2000). A review of special education in British Columbia. B.
C. Ministry of Education. http://www.featbc.org/downloads/review.pdf

Additional Resources

Morin, A. (2021). What is universal design for learning (UDL)? https://www.understood.org/articles/en/universal-design-for-learning-what-it-is-and-how-itworks
RTI Action Network. (2021). Learn about RTI. http://www.rtinetwork.org/learn

74

CHPT. 5. THE FULL INCLUSION MOVEMENT: ONE SIZE FITS ALL (2000–PRESENT)

C h a p te r

6

Is Full Inclusion Working?
The Need for a Continuum
of Educational Choice
Nan Stevens

Key Concepts
Medical Model and the Social Model of Disability
Self-Advocacy Movement and People First Movement
Normalization Principle
Educational Integration
2007 - United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities (CRPD)
 Te Full Inclusion Movement (FIM)
 Schools of Choice






CHPT. 6. IS FULL INCLUSION WORKING? THE NEED FOR A CONTINUUM OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE

75

Is Full Inclusion Working? The Need for a
Continuum of Educational Choice
Nan Stevens

Introduction
Te chapters presented in this book have served to illustrate the changing landscape of special education over the last 100 years within the KamloopsTompson region. Signifcant political and social movements were embedded
in the changing landscape. In addition, several disability theorists align with
these historical movements, some of which are described below.

Educational Models for the Disabled
During the period of institutionalization, the Medical Model of disability predominated, where disability was seen as a defcit and something to
fx. Te Parent and Family Movements (initiated by distraught parents with
loved ones living in institutions) paved the way for the most signifcant social
change in the last 100 years, the deinstitutionalization movement. People with
Disabilities (PWD) moved from large, isolated institutions into communities;
however, this positive change did not occur without its struggles.
Barnes, Oliver, and Barton (2002) observed that the Social Model of
Disability was transformative in moving disability from the Medical Model
into a more integrated paradigm, yet with it came problematic power relations.
Although the development of the Social Model of Disability (Oliver, 1996) was
successful in moving the disability movement away from the exclusive defcit-oriented way of thinking, the social model still lef people with disabilities
challenged by social barriers, feeling oppressed, and marginalized by a strong
power imbalance, which polarized disabled and nondisabled populations and
spawned Ableism which viewed PWD as “less than.” Following the Social
Model of Disability came the Critical Disability Movement or Critical Disability
Teory (CDT), a framework for critical analysis of the ableist assumptions.
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CHPT. 6. IS FULL INCLUSION WORKING? THE NEED FOR A CONTINUUM OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE

Self-Advocacy Movement and People First Movement
Once PWD moved into community living, they started their own movement, the Self-Advocacy Movement, likely nudged by their parents and families who lobbied before them. Te Self-Advocate Net (2021) maintains, today,
people with intellectual disabilities have a stronger voice for themselves and
others who have similar disabilities. Today in B. C., there are over 35 self-advocacy groups around the province making B. C. the leader of the self-advocacy movement in Canada. (para. 8)
Soon afer the Self-Advocacy Movement, the People First Movement was
formed by self-advocates. Te frst chapter began in 1974 in Oregon, U.S.A.,
and then fourished globally (People First Canada, 2021.). Initially, the People
First movement was founded on the commitment to freedom and rights—
freedom from institutions and the right to live in the community. People First
of Canada (2021), the national voice for people who live with an intellectual
disability, claims:
We are about rights—human rights, citizenship rights, accommodation rights, and language rights. We believe in the right
to freedom, choice, and equality for all. We see ourselves as
self-advocates and full citizens of our country—living equally
in the community. (para. 1)
It was about the same time as deinstitutionalization and the People First
Movement that the adoption of the Wolfensberger’s Normalization Principle
(1972) came into practice in North America.

The Normalization Principle
Te Normalization Principle had a profound impact in the feld of
human relations, not only on practitioners, but also on the families advocating for their loved ones living with intellectual and developmental disabilities.
Normalization refers to the “normal” conditions of life: housing, schooling,
employment, exercise, recreation, and freedom of choice, and assumes that
children and adults with exceptionalities can ft into mainstream society.
Wolfensberger (1972) asserted that normalization involves the acceptance
of people with disabilities, ofering them the same living conditions that are
ofered to other citizens.

Numerous scholars have focused
their life work on best practice
towards achieving inclusion in
a general education classroom
where students with and without
exceptionalities share a space
(Katz, 2012; Moore, 2016;
Schnellert, Watson & Widdess,
2015).

CHPT. 6. IS FULL INCLUSION WORKING? THE NEED FOR A CONTINUUM OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE

77

Historically and politically speaking, the Normalization Principle was a
welcome response for the general public during a period when society needed
a plan for PWD moving out of institutions. Nirje (1969) and Wolfensberger
(1972) developed key ideas to the Normalization Principle that refected a lifestyle for people living with developmental delay, including relationship partnership, employment, and family involvement which promoted awareness
and acceptance of people with developmental disabilities. According to Owen
et al. (2003), “Te premise underlying this movement was to integrate people
with disabilities into the mainstream of everyday life” (p. 45). Integration in
classroom settings was born out of the Normalization Principle.

Educational Integration
In educational contexts, the Normalization Principle meant that children with disabilities would be placed in the same classroom as their typically
developing peers. However, it is not as simple as placing the desks beside one
another and seeing what happens (integration). Tis is very diferent from
inclusion.
On the global front, the Normalization Principle was only one of many
infuential movements supporting the rights of PWD. Te United Nations
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) was one of the
most pivotal agreements in history for PWD.

United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities (CRPD)
In 2007, the United Nations ratifed the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities, the purpose of which was,
to promote, protect and ensure the full and equal enjoyment
of all human rights and fundamental freedoms by all persons
with disabilities, and to promote respect for their inherent
dignity. Te convention received the highest number of signatories in history to a UN Convention on its opening day
(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Afairs,
n.d., para. 1).
Countries that joined the convention made a commitment “to develop
and carry out policies, laws and administrative measures for securing the
78

CHPT. 6. IS FULL INCLUSION WORKING? THE NEED FOR A CONTINUUM OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE

rights recognized in the Convention and abolish laws, regulations, customs
and practices that constitute discrimination” (United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Afairs, n.d., para. 3). Furthermore, these countries were
to recognize that all persons are equal before the law, prohibit discrimination on the basis of disability, and guarantee equal legal protection (Article 5).
With the CRPD in place, it became the work of the governments of the countries that signed the agreement to enact change. Te Full Inclusion Movement
in educational contexts became the new normal.

The Full Inclusion Movement (FIM)
In education, the Full Inclusion Movement (FIM) means that students
with exceptionalities are part of inclusive classrooms, and it is an attractive
philosophy at frst glance. Most would agree that it is benefcial to prepare general education students for diversity and diference, and a substantial amount
of literature focuses on the positive social outcomes of the full inclusion
model. Some posit that, without full inclusion, typically developing children
cannot learn empathy and tolerance in order to work with others in a meaningful manner (Frederickson et al., 2007). Wiener and Tardif (2004) found
that “children in inclusion classes had more satisfying relationships with their
best school friends, were less lonely, and had fewer problem behaviours than
children in self-contained special education classes” (p. 20). Tere is ample
evidence to support full inclusion in schools (Bennett & Gallagher, 2013;
Naylor, 2005; Wlodarczyk et al., 2015). Despite this, the debate about inclusive
classrooms versus dedicated classrooms for students with exceptional learning needs continues to be rife with controversy.
Te most comprehensive book published that critiques full inclusion is
Te Illusion of Full Inclusion: A Comprehensive Critique of a Current Special
Education Bandwagon (Kaufman & Hallahan, 2005). Multiple case studies
present students’ lived experiences where full inclusion failed to meet their
needs. Rimland (1995), states,
full inclusion is not the right thing to do. It is the right thing to
do, sometimes. Any organization that endorses full inclusion
is taking an extremist position that has no place in an educational system and a society that prides itself on its choices
and multiple ways to achieve a desired quality of life (p. 292).

Inclusive classrooms are
general education classrooms in
which students with and without
learning disabilities learn
together.

A dedicated classroom is
completely devoted to special
education. It provides a selfcontained environment where
students with special needs
receive support for one or more
special need. Normally, these
schools are run by staff and
teachers with focused training in
special education (Stern, n.d.).

CHPT. 6. IS FULL INCLUSION WORKING? THE NEED FOR A CONTINUUM OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE

79

Numerous scholars have concurred with this stance (see Byrnes, 2013;
EdChoice, 2021; Hockenbury, Kaufman, & Hallahan, 2000; Philpott &
Dibbon, 2008). Yet, full inclusion still exists.

Continuum of Educational Choice Model in
School District #73
Although the Full Inclusion Movement (FIM) has paved the way for
education reform in Canada (and many countries), there is a need for more
research to reconcile the benefts and the challenges. One way to do this is to
explore parents’/caregivers’ lived experiences of fnding the best ft for their
loved ones. Stevens (2019) interviewed parents and guardians of students with
exceptionalities in the Kamloops-Tompson School District (SD73) to help
determine the best practice. Te study involved in-depth interviews with 12
parents/guardians who opted for the full inclusion model in their child’s kindergarten year. In all cases, the families wanted full inclusion to work; thus they
opted into this choice at the start of their child’s schooling. It became apparent that generalist elementary teachers lacked the knowledge or specialized
approaches that are essential to support children with diverse needs. Te evidence collected from the study illustrates that parents/guardians went looking
outside of the general education classroom to get their children’s needs met.
Some parents went to specialized programs ofered within SD73, others found
private or public agencies to bring in services to support speech and language
development, occupational therapy, and behavioural or sensory-based interventions. Mobility across educational settings resulted as parents journeyed
through the district to fnd the best ft for their loved one within the options
available to them.
Tese fndings demonstrate the need for educational choice for individuals with exceptional learning needs—diverse and specialized educational
options. Children in these case studies needed a variety of individualized services and supports, including remediation, adapted programming, sensory
regulation intervention, life skills education, and/or academic enrichment.

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CHPT. 6. IS FULL INCLUSION WORKING? THE NEED FOR A CONTINUUM OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE

The Schools of Choice Phenomenon
Te development of (and demand for) schools of choice is an integral component of the neoliberal values of Canada’s public school system
(Billingham & McDonough-Kimelberg, 2013; Bosetti & Gereluk, 2016). Over
the past three decades, the number of schools of choice in Canada has been
on the rise (Bosetti & Gereluk, 2016). For example, serving a community of
approximately 85,000, SD73 ofers the following schools of choice: a school
for students who identify as Indigenous, an arts-based school, a home and
hospital school program, a designated school for those living with Autism
Spectrum Disorder (ASD) (Chris Rose Centre), French Immersion, a Science
and Technology school, Montessori K-7, alternate schools including “Street
School,” Twin Rivers, and an online school. In the neighbouring province
of Alberta, parents have additional educational options with the presence of
charter schools, and in the United States, “voucher” scholarships can be used
for private schools or charter schools which “represent[s] the leading edge of
the movement to promote parental choice in education” (Gillet al., 2007, p. 1).
It is clear that schools of choice, combined with the availability of charter and
vouchers schools, provides parents and their children a wide range of schooling options.

Showcasing the
Kamloops-Thompson School District (SD73)
Te Kamloops-Tompson School District (SD73) is exemplary in that
it provides a number of choices for children with exceptionalities (See Figure
6.1). At the far lef of the continuum is the choice for a designated school
for children living with ASD. Additional educational options include resource
rooms, bridging programs, push in/pull out supports, and full inclusion
classrooms. Public school districts across Canada are being responsive to the
provincial and federal mandates of the Full Inclusion Movement (FIM) as it
applies to education. What parents/caregivers and students ultimately want
and need is choice in the educational programs available to them, like those
ofered in SD73.

CHPT. 6. IS FULL INCLUSION WORKING? THE NEED FOR A CONTINUUM OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE

81

DESIGNATED
SCHOOL

BRIDGING
PROGRAM

Specialized
program for a
uniquepopulation
of learners

Student attends a
designated program
(part-time)
(e.g., Chris Rose
Therapy Centre
for ASD and an
elementary School
program)

(e.g., Chris Rose
Therapy Centre for
ASD, Twin Rivers
Alternate School,
Insight Support
Services)

RESOURCE ROOM
K–7 or 8–12
Learning Assistance
Resource Teacher
(LART) plus
Certified Education
Assistants (CEAs)
*student may
attend classes in
the same school
with CEA support

PULL OUT/PUSH
IN PROGRAMS
Part-time Learning
Assistance (LA)
support for a
student within an
inclusive classroom
(push in)
OR
The student
leaves an inclusive
classroom to
attend in a
LearningAssistance
(LA)/Other setting
part-time (pull
out)

FULL INCLUSION
The student
attends an
inclusive classroom
(withor without
CEAsupport)

Table 6.1 -Te Continuum of Educational Choice
(Stevens, 2019, with permission)

With Choice and Voice, Families Find a “Best Fit”
Te concept of parent choice and parent voice would not be possible with
the full inclusion model, exclusively. For some of the cases in Stevens’s (2019)
study, it took years and many moves between schools in order to secure a “best
ft,” and, for all of the children and families, the “best ft” was secured by the
time the children were ready to enter secondary school. Terefore, it is most
important that educational options exist for students with exceptional learning needs at the Kindergarten to Grade 7 level.
One example of the options available to students in SD73 is a resource
room. A resource room has a specialized Learning Assistance Resource
Teacher (LART) and numerous Certifed Education
Assistants (CEAs) to support a maximum of 10 students. Te students
return to the same classroom each year and to the same staf team who know
the students’ needs. Tis continuation of service from year-to-year provides a
great advantage compared to changing teachers and support staf every year. A
student could be in this class for up to seven years of secondary school.

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CHPT. 6. IS FULL INCLUSION WORKING? THE NEED FOR A CONTINUUM OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE

It takes much more than “just placing students with diverse learning
needs next to their general-education peers: Teachers must have the time, support, and training to provide a high-quality education based on a student’s
needs” (Mader, 2017, p. 5). Te continuum of educational choice, including
designated schools, enables specialized programs to meet diverse educational
needs. School districts need to assess and place students on a case-by-case
basis, in consultation with parents/guardians, provide adequate teacher training and support (like the Integration Team noted in Chapter 4), and include
students with disabilities into the conversation about placement. Perhaps then
we will be operating as an inclusive public school system with school choices
for all, not just for students without disabilities.

Secondary Resource Room at Kamloops School of
the Arts Graduation (SD73) (Stevens, 2021)
Next, the phenomenon of Neurodiversity will be discussed. Neurodiversity
is the most contemporary theory of disability and aligns most closely with the
intentions of the continuum of educational choice model.

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The Neurodiversity Movement
Te Neurodiversity Movement began as the response from the autism
community to view the diferences of people living with this label as gifs
and strengths rather than defcits (Armstrong, 2010, 2012; Silberman, 2015).
Specifcally, neurodiversity regards biological diferences in the human
brain as natural variations that should be appreciated, suggesting that there
is no standard “normal” brain to which all other brains must be compared
(Solomon, 2012; den Houting, 2018). For example, a child diagnosed with
ASD who demonstrates perseverative behaviour (i.e., a need to itemize
objects in a certain order) is not viewed as having a defcit; rather, from a neurodiversity perspective, the behaviour is seen as a unique skill or gif which
may, one day, be useful to employment. Stanton (2019) describes the neurodiversity phenomenon:
Te idea of neurodiversity was developed by autistic people
in opposition to the pathologizing model. According to them,
autistic people are not disordered. Tey have a diferent sort
of order. Teir brains are diferently wired. Tey think diferently. Tey do not want to be cured. Tey want to be understood (p. 471).
Temple Grandin, a renowned scholar living with ASD who went on to
become a highly acclaimed professor, is a perfect example of the neurodiversity perspective. A secondary school teacher in Grandin’s life channelled her
obsession with cows into a successful career as an industrial designer. One of
Grandin’s (2012) books, Diferent . . . Not Less: Inspiring Stories of Achievement
and Successful Employment from Adults with Autism, Asperger’s, and ADHD,
documents numerous cases where people diagnosed with ASD found ways
to normalize and channel perseverative behaviours into highly sought-afer
skills. Te Neurodiversity Movement is not limited to those diagnosed with
ASD (Solomon, 2012). Indeed, all people with exceptionalities can live high
quality lives; it is society that needs to be educated to shif its view of individuals as diferent, not disabled (Greenburg & Des Roches-Rosa, 2020).
Within an educational context, the phenomenon of neurodiversity plays
a signifcant role in teacher education and teacher professional development. Neurodiversity is not only a philosophical framework for working with
84

CHPT. 6. IS FULL INCLUSION WORKING? THE NEED FOR A CONTINUUM OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE

diferent learning needs within a diverse population of students, but also the
foundation for what has become best teaching practice—Universal Design for
Learning (UDL) (as described in Chapter 5).

Neurodiversity and Universal Design for Learning
(UDL)
Te emerging theoretical framework of neurodiversity and the concept
of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) intersect with one another, as they
share a foundation of inclusion. UDL provides the methodology for teaching ALL students in a classroom, regardless of ability. Multiple access points,
scafolded learning, diferentiated instruction, various types learning, various
types of supports and accommodations, and formative assessment of learning,
including competency-based assessment for growth, provide the pillars for
students to engage in learning (CAST, 2021). Multiple means of engagement,
multiple means of expression, and multiple means of representation allow all
students to fnd learning methods that are meaningful and relevant to them
(Katz, 2012).
Educators, then, should focus on the abilities of individual students. A
neurodiverse classroom using UDL principles is a space where labels such as
disabled, gifed, and average are ignored. When educators view each child in
the neurodiverse classroom as uniquely gifed and challenged, parents/caregivers can be reassured that their child’s gifs will be nurtured and supported.
In turn, this enables children to experience multiple daily successes, which
can lead to very positive outcomes (Armstrong, 2012).

Temple Grandin said that, as
a person with Autism, she was
different—but not less.

Summary
Te long-standing dichotomy between full inclusion and designated
(segregated) schools among school administrators, policymakers, teachers,
special educators, and parents/guardians is far from resolved. However, the
Kamloops-Tompson School District (SD73), located within the interior of
British Columbia, has maintained its educational options and continuum of
choice for students (and their parents/guardians). SD73 adopted the FIM yet
maintains its commitment to educational choice within its school settings and
by employing UDL principles. Tis decision has made a diference in the lives
of numerous children and youth with a range of exceptionalities. A continuum
CHPT. 6. IS FULL INCLUSION WORKING? THE NEED FOR A CONTINUUM OF EDUCATIONAL CHOICE

85

of educational choice model, including designated (segregated) schools,
enables specialized programs to meet specifc learning needs on a case-bycase basis, and mobility across contexts best serves students and their families.
Parents/guardians must have a voice and a choice for their loved ones.
Te British Columbia Education Act (Government of B. C., 1996) states
that educational programs shall serve the students’ needs. Te KamloopsTompson School District’s commitment to a continuum of educational
choice to support success for ALL students is a simple yet efective strategy.
It is hoped that by showcasing this district’s approach to meeting all students’
needs, educational leaders, policymakers, and administrators can take this
model and apply it to their student population.

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The History of Special Education for Children with Differing Abilities
in the Kamloops Region 1800–2021
Dr. Kim Calder Stegemann
Professor Emerita, TRU
Ph.D., M.Sc., M.A., B.Ed.

Mary Ellen Patterson
Retired Teacher of
Students with Special
Needs

Marney Bethell
President KTRTA,
Retired Teacher

Lena Stengel
Elementary Teacher
B.Ed.

Marilyn McLean
Retired Assistant
Superintendent,
School District #73

Dr. Nan Stevens
Retired Professor, TRU
Ed.D., M.Ed., B.Ed., BPE

KIM CALDER STEGEMANN AND MARNEY BETHELL

Sheila Park
Past President KTRTA,
Retired Teacher

THE JOURNEY FROM INSTITUTION TO INCLUSION

The Journey from Institution to Inclusion:

The Journey from
Institution to Inclusion
The History of Special Education for Children
with Differing Abilities in the Kamloops-Thompson Region
1800–2021

Stuart Wood School, Kamloops, 1800’s

Kim Calder Stegemann and Marney Bethell (Eds.)
with the History of Special Education in Kamloops-Tompson
Committee: Marilyn McLean, Sheila Park, Mary Ellen Patterson,
Lena Stengel, and Nan Stevens