１１８

CANADIAN AND JAPANESE SECONDARY
TEACHERS’ VALUES:
A CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARATIVE STUDY
中等学校教員の価値意識：
カナダと日本の比較文化的調査

Edward R. Howe*
エドワード・ハウ
PhD Candidate, The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
University of Toronto
トロント大学オンタリオ教育研究所博士課程
Canadian and Japanese secondary teachers’ values were compared.
Teachers identified significant student learning outcomes; indicated
upon successful completion of high school what students should be able
to do; and provided descriptions of outstanding students. Significant
cross-cultural differences and mutual values were found. Common
themes included developing cognitive abilities, responsibility, social
skills, independence, knowledge, work ethic, life skills, learning skills
and positive attitudes. However, Canadian teachers tended to advocate
getting students to think, solve problems and to work hard, while
Japanese teachers stressed the importance of building relationships and
learning a sense of responsibility. Further analysis elicited the following
questions—How can researchers adequately take into account the
cultural context of teaching and learning? Can comparative education
find a suitable methodology to overcome the barriers of language?
Suggestions were made for further comparative ethnographic studies in
light of emerging sociocultural theory.
本稿はカナダと日本の中等学校の教師の価値意識を比較したものである。生徒
の学習成果とは何か、卒業と認めるためには生徒は何ができるようになっていな
ければならないか、優れた生徒とはどのような生徒をさすのかを教師たちに回答
*

The correspondence address to Edward R. Howe is: Conforu Omiya Uetake #2-103, 1-362
Uetake-cho, Kita-ku, Saitama-shi, Saitama, 331-0813 Japan; his e-mail address is
ehowe@oise.utoronto.ca.

Japanese Society, Vol. VI, pp. 118-139
Copyright © 2003 The Japanese Society Research Institute

CANADIAN AND JAPANESE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ VALUES

１１９

してもらった。異文化比較学的に見て有意の差異の認められる項目と、共通の項
目のあることが明らかにされた。認知的能力、責任感、社会的技能、自立心、知識
、労働倫理、生活技能、積極的態度の育成は共通にあげられたテーマであった。
しかし、カナダの教師は、考え、問題を解決し、一生懸命働くように生徒を育成す
ることが大切であると考える傾向があるのに対し、日本の教師は、人間関係の構
築と責任意識の育成が重要であると強調した。これらの分析は、いかにしたら研
究者は教授･学習の文化的文脈を十分に考慮に入れることができるであろうかと
いう問題を提起した。比較教育学は言語の壁を克服するのに適切な方法を見出
すことができるであろうか。最近の社会文化論に照らして比較民族学的研究に資
するためのいくつかの提案を行った。

INTRODUCTION
In the last decade, Japan and several Canadian Provinces, most notably
British Columbia (BC), have implemented significant education
reforms.1 Through comparative study of these initiatives, improvements
can be made to enhance teaching and learning in these two regions and
elsewhere. British Columbia’s Ministry of Education (2002) has
mandated all curricula must emphasize problem solving and critical
thinking, literacy and communication, teamwork and information
technology. Similarly, Japan’s Ministry of Education (Monbusho, 2002)
has recommended reforms including an emphasis on individuality,
cultivation of creativity, thinking ability and power of expression,
humanization of the educational environment and coping with
internationalization. However, to achieve any degree of success in such
comprehensive educational reforms, all stakeholders should be surveyed
regarding what matters most to them. Teachers and students must be at
the centre of any reform efforts in education. Thus, with respect to the
foregoing, this study provides an in-depth analysis of teachers’ values
associated with exemplary student learning outcomes and attributes
while providing a framework for further research, discussion and
comparison.

1

For a comprehensive introduction to Japanese education see Rohlen (1998); Rohlen &
LeTendre (1996); Takakura & Murata (1998); cf. Yoneyama (1999). For a historical overview of
teaching in British Columbia, see Barman, Sutherland & Wilson (1995) and for an international
comparative look at Canadian teachers see Goodson (1995).

１２０

E. R. HOWE

Japanese education has been the focal point of several well-known
ethnographic studies (Benjamin, 1997; LeTendre, 2000; Okano, 1993;
Rohlen, 1983; Shimahara & Sakai, 1995; Singleton, 1967). However,
perhaps due to the difficult nature of conducting cross-cultural research,
the few international comparative studies focusing on teachers have been
large-scale efforts done mostly by groups of western researchers with
significant financial support from governments and large corporations.
The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
Achievement (IEA) studies including the Third International
Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) offer mere snapshots of
teachers’ values, perspectives and thinking. Another salient example,
and perhaps the most comprehensive international study of teacher
education was conducted by the U.S. Department of Education in order
to investigate teacher induction in Pacific Rim nations (Moskowitz &
Stephens, 1997). However, this study only scratched the surface of
teacher induction within each nation. For instance, Canada’s provinces
have radically different education systems yet the study only surveyed
Quebec’s teachers.
Most comparative research into Japan’s teachers has been from an
American perspective (see for example, Britton, Raizen, Paine, &
Huntley, 2000; Cobb, 1999; Cobb, Darling-Hammond, & Murangi,
1995; Hawley, 1990; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992). Tetsuya Kobayashi’s
(1993) work offers a refreshing comparative look at teachers from a
Japanese perspective, while Shimahara and Sakai (1995) provide a
cross-cultural and balanced analysis from both U.S. and Japanese
educators. I share Hayhoe’s (2001) vision for teacher education—a
fusion between Eastern and Western thinking. With over ten years of
secondary school teaching experience in both Canada and Japan, I am
uniquely positioned to offer a cross-cultural insider’s perspective.

METHOD
This study builds from my MA thesis (Howe, 2000), designed to
compare and contrast BC and Japanese secondary school teachers’
conceptions of critical thinking across the dimensions of culture, subject
area, experience, age and gender. To facilitate this comparison, a
two-part survey instrument was designed. The second part of the survey
instrument included several open-ended questions associated with
teachers’ values not included in the thesis analysis. Thus, teacher
responses to the following three questions provided data for this paper:

CANADIAN AND JAPANESE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ VALUES

１２１

Identify the five most significant learning outcomes attained by your
students:
Upon successful completion of high school students should be able
to:
What five words best describe an outstanding student?
The sample originally consisted of 159 teachers from ten public
secondary schools in BC and Japan. However, only 158 teachers
provided data for much of the analysis reported here, as one BC teacher
didn’t answer these three questions. Six comprehensive secondary
schools (grades 8–12) were selected from the Lower Mainland of BC.
Three high schools (elite academic, comprehensive and technical
vocational) and one middle school (general academic) were chosen from
the Kanto region of Japan. Selective sampling was used to ensure a
range of teachers of different subject backgrounds, ages and experience
in order to facilitate comparison. Of the 71 BC teachers surveyed there
were 38 men and 33 women. Of the 88 Japanese teachers surveyed there
were 75 men and 13 women. The research was conducted from
June–December 1998 in BC and March 1999 in Japan. In 2002 data
obtained from the three questions was used to investigate the overall
sense of secondary teachers’ values and to compare Canadian and
Japanese teachers’ notions of outstanding student attributes and
significant learning outcomes.

TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the Canadian and Japanese
teachers surveyed. Of the 159 teachers surveyed, the number of men
(n=113) was much greater that the number of women (n=46). While the
number of Canadian men (n=38) and women (n=33) teachers surveyed
are nearly equal, 85 percent of the Japanese teachers surveyed are men.
However, these demographics are characteristic of high schools within
each region. At the time of this study, only 24 percent of the secondary
school teachers in Japan were female (Monbusho, 1997) while in BC the
n umber was 41.4 percent (British Columbia Teachers' Federation,
1998).

１２２

Table 1

E. R. HOWE

Characteristics of Selected Teachers in Canadian
and Japanese Secondary Schools
n

Gender
Women
Men
Total

%

Total
46
28.9
113
71.1
159
100.0

n

%

Canada
33
46.0
38
54.0
71
44.7

n

% t-value

Japan
13
15.0
75
85.0
88
55.3

p

4.65

.000

n
22
51
49
37
Mean
41.40

%
13.8
32.1
30.8
23.3
S.D.
9.55

n
15
22
18
16
Mean
39.59

%
21.1
30.0
25.4
22.5
S.D.
10.10

n
7
29
31
21
Mean
42.85

%
8.0
33.0
35.2
23.9
S.D.
8.92

2.17

.032

n
27
19
26
32
19
18
14
4
Mean
15.93

%
17.0
11.9
16.0
20.1
11.9
11.3
8.8
2.5
S.D.
9.90

n
20
13
8
9
6
10
5
0
Mean
13.11

%
28.2
18.3
11.3
12.7
8.5
14.1
7.0
0.0
S.D.
10.30

n
7
6
18
23
13
8
9
4
Mean
18.20

%
8.0
6.8
20.5
26.1
14.8
9.1
10.2
4.5
S.D.
9.01

3.33

.001

n
%
Subject Areas
24
15.1
Language Arts
23
14.5
Math
32
20.1
Science
19
11.9
Social Studies
8
5.0
Fine Art
15
9.4
Foreign Languages
38
23.9
Other
1 Percent by column.
2 Denotes a percent of the total sample.

n
13
13
19
9
3
5
9

%
18.3
18.3
26.8
12.7
4.2
7.0
12.7

n
11
10
13
10
5
10
29

%
12.5
11.4
14.8
11.4
5.7
11.4
33.0

Age
20–29 years old
30–39 years old
40–49 years old
50+ years old
Total

Teaching experience
<5 years
5–9 years
10–14 years
15–19 years
20–24 years
25–29 years
30–34 years
35 or more years
Total

Both BC and Japan’s teaching populations are aging reflecting
broader national demographic trends. With new, younger teachers
replacing those retiring, it is not surprising that 45.9 percent of the
teachers surveyed are in their twenties and thirties while 23.3 percent are
in their fifties and sixties (see Table 1). The mean age of secondary

CANADIAN AND JAPANESE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ VALUES

１２３

school teachers in this study was 42.85 years old for Japan and 39.59
years old for BC. These statistics compare well with data available from
the Monbusho (1997) and BC Teachers’ Federation (1998) giving the
average ages as 41.6 and 43.0 (including administrators) respectively.
Japanese teachers are proportionally older than BC teachers—both in
this sample and in the teaching population as a whole.
Japanese teachers had more career experience (18.2 years) than
Canadian teachers (13.1 years). This 5-year difference was statistically
significant (p<.001). At any given age, Japanese teachers are likely to
have more career experience than Canadian teachers. This is because
Japanese teachers tend to begin university at age 18 and then go straight
into teaching upon graduation so that by the time a teacher is in their
mid-thirties they have at least ten years of career experience.
Teachers in Language Arts (24), Math (23), Science (32), Social
Studies (19), Fine Arts (8) and Foreign Language (15) represented
approximately 75 percent of the respondents. A number of subject areas
less frequently identified were placed into the category “Other” in Table
1. These included seven BC subjects: Business Education (3); Computer
Science (3); Industrial Education (5); Special Education (3); Counseling
(1); Career Education (1); Learning Assistance (1) and six Japanese
subjects: Agriculture (6); Home Economics (4); Technology Education
(5); Architecture (2); Metalwork (1); Nursing (2). The specialization of
Japanese subject areas is due to the selective nature of Japanese
academic and vocational high schools, while the diversity of BC subject
areas reflects greater course selection at BC’s comprehensive high
schools.

RESULTS: TEACHERS’ VALUES
After analyzing the data in search of common patterns and
interrelationships nine main themes were disseminated from teachers’
responses to the three survey questions. Teachers shared other common
values, however these themes were the most prevalent (numbers in
brackets are a tally of the total number of times mentioned). Listed in
rank-order they are as follows:

１２４

E. R. HOWE

1.

Cognitive Abilities (325): thinking (101); creativity (52);
problem solving (50)
Responsibility/Morals/Ethics (231): responsibility (57)
Social Skills (200): cooperation (73); social (49); human/social
relationships (34); making friends (12)
Independence (168): independence (58); act on their own (51);
autonomy (30)
Knowledge (110): including basic (25); content (13); subject
(12); for life in general (7)
Work Ethic (109): motivated (20); hard-working (16)
Career/Life Skills (75): preparation for future job/path (20);
goal setting (18); leadership (9); post-secondary preparation (6)
Learning Skills (49): study skills (12); life-long learning (10)
Positive Attitude (43): positive (27), cheerful (11), happy (4)

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

The top three themes were mentioned by approximately
three-quarters of the teachers surveyed. The most ubiquitous theme was
Cognitive Abilities including creative, critical, independent, logical and
higher-order thinking. Next was Responsibility/Morals/Ethics
incorporating responsibility, fairness, empathy, conscientious,
thoughtful, kind, and considerate and other terms relating to manners,
respect, morals and ethics. A few teachers indicated ecological
awareness and “thinking globally while acting locally” as important
lessons for high school students. The third most prevalent theme was
Social Skills including cooperation, building human/social relationships
and making friends. Another popular theme endorsed by 60 percent of
teachers was Independence including terms such as autonomy,
independence, express/think/act on their own, self-discipline and
self-directed. Knowledge was mentioned by 56 percent of the teachers
surveyed. Work Ethic (hard working, dedicated, diligent, persistent,
motivated, and making an effort) was endorsed by just over half the
teachers surveyed. Career/Life Skills was endorsed by 37 percent of the
teachers while Learning Skills figured prominently in 25 percent of the
teacher responses to significant student learning outcomes and
outstanding student attributes. Finally, 22 percent of the teachers (almost
entirely Japanese) used terms such as positive, cheerful and happy.
These were labeled Positive Attitude.

CANADIAN AND JAPANESE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ VALUES

１２５

In addition, but to a lesser degree, a wide variety of behavioral
objectives and personal characteristics (inter alia—intelligent,
personality, humour, persistence, well rounded, and open-minded) were
also mentioned by more than a few teachers. While these terms were
frequently used to describe outstanding students, occasionally they were
also found in response to learning outcomes. Overall, there was
considerable overlap in responses to all three questions. To better
understand the nature of secondary teachers’ values in comparative
perspective, the percentage of Canadian and Japanese teachers endorsing
each of the nine themes were compared across the dimensions of culture,
gender, age, teaching experience and subject area.

CANADIAN AND JAPANESE TEACHERS IN
COMPARISON
As shown in Figure 1, there were significant differences between the
percentage of Canadian and Japanese secondary teachers, supporting six
of the nine themes. Cognitive Abilities and Work Ethic and were
strongly endorsed by Canadian teachers while Responsibility/Morals/
Ethics, Social Skills, Knowledge and Positive Attitude were of greater
importance to Japanese teachers. The most significant student learning
outcomes from the perspective of Canadian teachers was getting
students to think, solve problems and to work hard. On the other hand,
Japanese teachers felt students needed to build human relationships and
to learn a sense of responsibility. Nearly all the Canadian teachers
mentioned terms relating to Cognitive Abilities as significant learning
outcomes. In contrast, Responsibility/Morals/Ethics and Social Skills
were supported by most Japanese teachers. Canadian teachers tended to
favour Cognitive Abilities over Social Skills or other learning outcomes
while Japanese teachers mentioned responsibility, morals, ethics and
human relationships more frequently than Cognitive Abilities. Other
interesting differences were found in the themes of Independence and
Work Ethic. A higher percentage of Japanese teachers indicated
Independence was an important learning outcome and student attribute.
A significantly higher percentage of Canadian teachers mentioned Work
Ethic. Japanese teachers valued Positive Attitude by indicating cheerful,
happy and positive as responses to outstanding student attributes as well
as learning outcomes.

１２６

E. R. HOWE

Percent
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

93

65

Japan

70

51

34

39

36

35

30

20

Et
hi
Ca
c
re
er
/L
ife
Sk
ill
Le
s
ar
ni
ng
Sk
Po
ill
sit
s
iv
eA
tti
tu
de

k
W
or

Kn

ow

led
g

e

en
ce

ki
lls

de
pe
nd
In

cia
lS

sib

So

Ab

or
als
/

ili
tie
s

Et
hi
cs

6

M

iti
ve

68

67

56

40

ili
ty

gn

56

Canada

86

Re
sp

on

Co

89

Figure 1

Percentage of Teachers Endorsing Each of the Major
Themes

GENDER
Looking at the sample as a whole, there were few substantial differences
based on gender (see Table 2). However, with 33 Canadian women and
only 13 Japanese women in the sample of teachers, themes that were
particularly strong for Canadian teachers would tend to be overly
represented by Canadian women teachers’ values. For example,
Cognitive Abilities, Work Ethic, and Learning Skills each had support
from a significantly greater proportion of Canadian teachers. Thus,
looking at Canadian and Japanese teachers separately with respect to
gender differences facilitates better interpretation of the data.

１２７

CANADIAN AND JAPANESE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ VALUES

Table 2

Percentage of Teachers Endorsing Themes for
Student Learning Outcomes and Attributes

Cognitive Abilities
Responsibility/Morals/Ethics
Social Skills
Independence
Knowledge
Work Ethic
Career/Life Skills
Learning Skills
Positive Attitude

Total Canada
.77
.93
.74
.56
.73
.56
.60
.51
.56
.40
.50
.70
.37
.39
.25
.30
.22
.06

Japan
.65
.89
.86
.67
.68
.34
.36
.20
.35

Total
p
.000
.000
.000
.008
.000

.000

Men
.75
.78
.75
.61
.58
.48
.34
.19
.25

Women
.82
.64
.67
.58
.49
.56
.47
.40
.16

Note: For Canadian teachers, n=70 (38 men; 32 women) while for Japanese teachers, .
n=88 (75 men; 13 women)
p values are based on 2-tailed t-test.

Canada
Cognitive Abilities
Responsibility/Morals/Ethics
Social Skills
Independence
Knowledge
Work Ethic
Career/Life Skills
Learning Skills
Positive Attitude

Men
.92
.55
.50
.53
.39
.76
.32
.13
.05

Japan
Women
.94
.56
.63
.50
.41
.63
.47
.50
.06

Men
.67
.89
.88
.65
.68
.33
.35
.21
.35

Women
.54
.85
.77
.77
.69
.38
.46
.15
.38

If the sample is split first by culture and then by gender, an entirely
different picture emerges (see Table 2). While there appear to be
moderate gender differences for both Canadian and Japanese teachers
for four of the nine themes, only Learning Skills for Canadian teachers
was statistically significant (p<.001). For Canadian teachers, women
showed greater support for Social Skills, Career/Life Skills and Learning
Skills while men endorsed Work Ethic more strongly. On the other
hand, a larger percentage of Japanese men mentioned Social Skills, than
either Japanese or Canadian women. While Japanese men and women
showed nearly equal support for themes of Knowledge, Responsibility,
Work Ethic and Positive Attitude, Japan’s teachers showed clear gender
differences for Cognitive Abilities, Social Skills, Career/Life Skills and
Learning Skills.

１２８

E. R. HOWE

Analysis of gender differences based on whether Canadian and
Japanese teachers were grouped together raises questions pertaining to
the fragile nature of relationships between ‘variables’ and the dangers of
adhering to the traditional units of analysis. Looking at gender separately
from culture elicits different findings. Significant and even subtler
gender differences are overwhelmed by more substantial cultural
differences among teachers unless the cultural context is taken into
account.

AGE AND CAREER EXPERIENCE
Teacher values were relatively consistent over the range of ages.
However, several themes including Cognitive Abilities, Independence
and Career/Life Skills, showed a gradual decline in support with
increasing age. On the other hand, some themes had marked changes in
support from the most senior teachers over fifty years old. For example,
teacher support for Social Skills increased with respect to age from 64
percent to 82 percent for teachers in their twenties, thirties and forties
only to fall back to 64 percent for teachers over fifty years old. Learning
Skills decreased steadily from a high of 41 percent for teachers in their
twenties to 16 percent for teachers in their forties. It then increased to 28
percent for the most senior teachers. Support for Positive Attitude
increased to a high of 31 percent for teachers in their forties only to drop
to a low of 11 percent for teachers over fifty years old. Caution must be
advised in the interpretation of these results however due to the small
sample sizes (see Table 1).
There was considerably more variation in the percentage of teachers
endorsing each of the nine major themes with respect to teaching
experience compared to the data for age. This can be attributed to the
smaller groups of teachers in each of the five-year intervals of teaching
experience (see Table 1). The rationale for grouping the teachers in this
way stems from personal teaching experience and widely held beliefs
about teacher acculturation. It takes at least 5 years to progress from a
novice to a knowledgeable professional. Most teacher salary scales in
British Columbia increase steadily for ten years reaching a maximum at
ten to twelve years experience with a Master’s degree. While most
teachers in this sample had over ten years experience, a significant
number of teachers (27) had less than five years teaching experience.

CANADIAN AND JAPANESE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ VALUES

１２９

Thus it was arbitrarily decided to use 5-year intervals. Some of the
dramatic variations can be attributed to the relative numbers of Canadian
and Japanese teachers within each experience cohort. For example, a
precipitous drop in support by senior teachers for Work Ethic from 83 to
11 percent, can be explained by the larger contingent of Japanese
teachers (13) compared to Canadian teachers (5) with over 30 years
experience (recall that overall only 34 percent of Japanese teachers
supported this theme compared to 70 percent of Canadian teachers).

SUBJECT AREA
Teachers of Language Arts, Math, Science, Social Studies and Foreign
Languages represented over 70 percent of the entire sample. Science and
Math teachers were highly supportive of Cognitive Abilities while
Language Arts and Foreign Language teachers tended to choose Social
Skills. Interestingly, all of the Social Studies teachers (19) endorsed
Cognitive Abilities. Also, Foreign Language teachers were more
supportive of Responsibilities/Morals/Ethics. Again, this can be
explained by culture, as there were ten Japanese and only four Canadian
Foreign Language teachers (n=14 due to one incomplete survey). Recall
that Japanese teachers were strong supporters (89 percent) of
Responsibility/Morals/ Ethics as it is part of their curriculum while only
56 percent of the Canadian teachers endorsed this theme. In summary, it
would appear that irrespective of gender, age, teaching experience, and
subject area, cultural factors figure most prominently in this analysis of
teacher values.

DISCUSSION
The most significant findings here are the cross-cultural differences in
teacher thinking, values and perceptions. Originally, when this research
was undertaken, I held the notion that teachers were the same throughout
the world. “Surely, subject teachers share similar values with colleagues
from abroad…and besides, how different could the teaching of various
subjects be?” or so I thought. While I still believe this to a certain extent,
I have a profound new way of looking at the world of teachers through
multiple lenses. Culture permeates every nook and cranny of curriculum,
teaching and learning. It seems impossible to isolate other variables.

１３０

E. R. HOWE

How can researchers adequately take into account the cultural context of
teaching and learning? Can comparative education find a suitable
methodology to overcome the barriers of language? Before opening up
this discussion, I would like to share some insights I have gained
through my thesis work and subsequent reading.
Howe (2000) found significant differences in Canadian and Japanese
secondary teachers’ conceptions of critical thinking. Nearly 97 percent
of the 159 teachers could correctly be classified on the basis of culture.
Definers of critical thinking were selected by Canadian and Japanese
teachers from a deck of 50 critical thinking cards, with Japanese on one
side and English on the other. A number of critical thinking definers
showed a marked contrast: Decision making was chosen by 70 percent
of the Canadian teachers but only 25 percent of the Japanese teachers;
Divergent thinking was chosen by 63 percent and 25 percent
respectively. Canadian teachers conceptualized critical thinking through
definers such as Decision making, Problem solving, Divergent thinking,
Metacognitive skills, Higher order thinking, Deductive reasoning, and
Identifying/removing bias embodied in the factors of Cognitive
Strategizing and Relevance. On the other hand, Japanese teachers
conceptualized critical thinking through definers such as Fairness,
Adequacy, Objective, Consistency, Completeness, Precision, and
Specificity exemplified by the factors of Conscientious Judgements and
Intellectual Engagement. While Fairness was selected by 45 percent of
the Japanese teachers, only seven percent of the Canadian teachers
endorsed it. These definers describe behaviour and morality—concepts
that are emphasized in Japan’s schools. Thus, while Canadian teachers
related critical thinking more to the cognitive domain, Japanese teachers
tended to favour the affective domain. These sorts of contrasts between
Eastern and Western thinking are well-documented (Cummings &
Altbach, 1997; Gardner, 1989; Hayashi & Kuroda, 1997; Lewis, 1995;
Reid, 1999; Rohlen & LeTendre, 1996; Shields, 1993; Shimahara &
Sakai, 1995; Stevenson & Lee, 1995; Stevenson & Stigler, 1992).
Gardner’s (1989) “key in the slot” story illustrates contrasts in
Eastern and Western thinking eloquently. When traveling in East Asia,
Gardner and his wife were intrigued by reactions to their two-year-old
son attempting to return their hotel key at the front desk. Rather than
demonstrating how to place the key in the slot, they let the child discover
the process through trial and error. A Chinese observer questioned why

CANADIAN AND JAPANESE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ VALUES

１３１

they don’t simply show the child how to insert the key by guiding his
hand and thus avoiding any “mistakes.”
As there is only one “right” way of doing things, the Eastern
philosophy is to have an expert teach the “right” way and thus avoid the
common mistakes made by a neophyte. Once this is demonstrated it
must be practiced over and over many times until it is learned.
Traditionally, “mistakes” were not encouraged in Japanese classrooms.
Students didn’t question their teachers. There was knowledge to be
transmitted from teacher to student with little room for debate. Perhaps
these stereotypes are being challenged as Japan begins to embrace a
critical thinking approach to learning.
While Japanese may be characterized as group oriented, Canadians
are more independent. Japanese individuals do what is best for the group
in order to keep harmony with others while maintaining a sense of
honour and morality. Equality, patience, persistence, pride, humility,
unity, and community spirit may best describe Japan’s teachers. The
Japanese school curriculum emphasizes in addition to course content,
socialization, morality and behaviour, rather than cognitive abilities. On
the other hand, Canadian teachers could best be described as diverse,
self-reliant, individualistic, original and opinionated. The Canadian
school curriculum emphasizes creativity, independent thinking and
cognitive processes. Japanese students are taught lessons such as “do not
say things to upset others,” “don’t voice your opinion,” “the needs of the
few do not outweigh the needs of the many,” “the nail that sticks out
gets hammered down” and “practice, practice, practice…practice makes
you master.” In contrast, Canadian students are taught to state an
opinion, be critical, think for oneself and be oneself. Originality is
celebrated and encouraged by Canada’s secondary teachers, however the
same can’t be said for Japan’s secondary teachers. Thus, “critical
thinking” and other important educational terms will have different
connotations within the cultural context of the two regions.
One possible explanation for discrepancies between Canadian and
Japanese teachers’ support for the themes of Work Ethic and
Independence may have to do with the cultural context and specific
values that are omnipresent with each society. For example, having a
strong sense of work ethic is so pervasive in Japanese society; perhaps it
is taken for granted and as such is not an explicit part of the student

１３２

E. R. HOWE

learning outcomes. Other themes may be so ingrained in either society
such that they are not considered worth mentioning. For example,
Independence was endorsed by 67 percent of Japanese teachers and 51
percent of Canadian teachers. These results would seem to question the
long-held notions of Western independence versus Eastern group
mentality. However, in light of the Japanese educational reforms hinging
on fostering independence, combined with the ‘taken-for-grantedness’ of
this concept within British Columbia’s education system perhaps these
results are not too surprising. In any case, in order to investigate these
culturally embedded questions, further research incorporating a different
methodology is necessary. Further investigations of teachers’ values and
perspectives should go beyond surveys and interviews to include
participant-observation in addition to the narratives of teachers.
While there have been few cross-cultural comparative studies of
teachers’ values and perspectives, the vast majority of these sorts of
investigations have been highly quantitative and based entirely on
Western survey research. The strengths of large-scale surveys have
traditionally been greater external reliability and validity, however much
of the finer points and considerable depth of analysis have been
compromised. Moreover, the voices of other cultures may have been lost
in the process. Nevertheless, recent developments in IEA studies include
some degree of qualitative methods. TIMSS has provided a window into
teaching and learning within different cultural contexts, but it is through
other means that the complex nature of teaching and learning can be
properly understood. In particular, comparative ethnographic studies
show great promise. “Anthropological studies of education in every
country and setting can help bear witness to the rich diversity of modes
of cultural transmission and the great variety of experiences that can be
called educational” (Masemann, 1999, p. 130). Ethnographic case
studies have the potential to go well beyond the typical surface
treatments of survey research to uncover deeper meaning. In addition,
“more space devoted to comparative, ethnographic work would go a
long way toward changing the current dialog about comparisons with
Japan and perhaps inhibit the recurrent use of stereotypes and reasoning
based on stereotypes that has afflicted so much of the current debate”
(LeTendre, 1999, p. 43).
Perhaps the best window into the thinking of educators is through
their own narratives (see Clandinin & Connelly, 1999; Farrell, 1986). As

CANADIAN AND JAPANESE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ VALUES

１３３

Hayhoe (2000) indicated in her Comparative and International
Education Society Presidential Address, Redeeming Modernity:
My 6 months in Japan helped me to see, in ways that are hard to
capture through the grid of Western social science, some of the strengths
of Japanese cultural resources.…patterns of thought emerged that
seemed to be deeply connected to the varied regional cultures.…
Indigenous Japanese forms of expression—visual images or metaphors,
expressed in the language of ordinary people, rather than abstract
concepts from social science literature—seemed to go to the heart of
Japanese culture. (p. 438)
Comparative educators shouldn’t be too eager to embrace the
multiple perspectives of postmodernism without giving further thought
to metanarratives of practitioners from different cultures. There are
culturally specific, different ways of perceiving, knowing, understanding
and interpreting events (Masemann, 1990). Hayhoe (2000) characterized
two such metanarratives as “humanizing modernity” in the case of
China and “harmonizing modernity” in the case of Japan in contrast to
her Western notion of redeeming modernity.

CONCLUSION
The data presented here can be used in conjunction with other
cross-cultural comparative studies of values and perspectives to form a
powerful case for further research. Language is not only embedded in
culture but according to Hayashi and Kuroda (1997), language has
directly nurtured Japanese culture. Hayashi and Kuroda’s longitudinal
study (1953–present) of Japanese culture in comparative perspective
provides a framework for cross-cultural studies and important insights
for comparative education methodology. According to Hayashi and
Kuroda, we don’t think alike in different parts of the world. Moreover,
many cultural differences in thinking, values and perspectives can be
attributed to language. Japanese language is diffuse and ambiguous.
Japanese ways of doing things make sense to those who can learn to
think and communicate in Japanese. Similarly, Japanese are just as
individualistic as Westerners if they are thinking about a question in
English. It is not simply a case of Eastern versus Western mentality,
however as Hayashi and Kuroda point out, “the Chinese are very
individualistic and rationally oriented, while the Japanese are human
relations oriented in contextualism par excellence.…The Japanese sense
of self is considerably different from the Chinese self” (p. 118). Thus,

１３４

E. R. HOWE

given that various cultures think and communicate differently, how can
comparative education research be most effectively conducted? How
can a survey or even an interview adequately take into account all the
nuances of culture? Moreover, the picture becomes fuzzier still as it may
be incorrect to assume that an entire nation contains just one
homogenous ‘culture’ but rather contains a myriad of competing
microcultures. The sociocultural dynamics of comparative education
must be up front and centre for any emerging epistemologies or
alternative theoretical frameworks.
Debates have raged for some years over whether comparative,
international and development education is a distinct field with a
defining framework and set of standard methodologies (see Wilson,
1994). Only recently have individuals offered insights into potential
theoretical frameworks for comparative education in light of emerging
sociocultural theory (see Arnove, 1999; Cole, 1996; Hoffman, 1999;
Masemann, 1999; Welch, 1999). As the predominant unit of analysis
continues to be nation-states, the problems inherent in various
methodologies will continue to plague comparative education research.
Until these limitations are confronted, comparative education researchers
will be unable to adequately understand the intricacies of education and
culture. Finally, alternative theoretical frameworks should make sense to
practitioners and should be easily understood within different
sociocultural contexts.
British Columbia and Japan have been undergoing significant
educational reforms in efforts to improve student learning within the
context of the emerging globalized world. Further research is needed
into the way teachers perceive teaching and learning within these two
education systems and elsewhere. Policy makers need to keep
practitioners at the forefront of the development of educational reforms.
Moreover, alternative frameworks for comparing the nature of
education, as interpreted through a variety of lenses, should incorporate
teachers’ thinking, for the effectiveness of any reforms to education
ultimately depends on the teachers.
Appendix: Summary of Canadian and Japanese Teachers’
Values
Area

of

CANADA

JAPAN

CANADIAN AND JAPANESE SECONDARY TEACHERS’ VALUES

１３５

Comparison

Emphasis of
reforms to
student learning
outcomes
initiated since
1990

Problem solving, critical
thinking, communication,
literacy, teamwork and
information technology

Individuality, cultivation
of creativity, thinking
ability/power of
expression, humanization
of the educational
environment and
internationalization

Induction
programs and
teacher
acculturation

“Sink or swim” reality
largely abates reflective
practitioner model

National commitment
to professional
development of
teachers; Strong
guidance component

Most significant
teacher values
(percentage of
teachers
endorsing each
theme)

Cognitive Abilities (93
%)
Work Ethic (70 %)
Responsibility (56%)
Social Skills (56 %)
Independence (51 %)

Responsibility/Morals/
Ethics (89%)
Social Skills (86 %)
Knowledge (68 %)
Independence (67 %)
Cognitive Abilities (65
%)

Critical
thinking factors

Cognitive Strategizing
Relevance

Conscientious
Judgements
Intellectual Engagement

Critical
thinking
definers that
best distinguish
Canadian and
Japanese
teachers (listed
in rank-order)

Decision making
Problem solving
Divergent thinking
Metacognitive skills
Higher order thinking
Deductive reasoning
Identifying/removing bias

Fairness
Adequacy
Objective
Consistency
Completeness
Precision
Specificity

Learning
Outcomes and
Attributes

Predominantly from the
cognitive domain

Predominantly from the
affective domain

１３６

E. R. HOWE

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編集者への注意：
この論文は、Excelで作業してから、コピー、形式を選択してはりつけ
、図として貼り付けること。
Table 1の線の太さを調整のこと。